THE EXPANSION OF ROMAN DOMINION 107 He crushed the enemies who were in arms against him ; but when they were crushed he pardoned them, and forgot that they had been his enemies, with a magnanimity to which they did not respond. To gain power he had not been ashamed to employ the arts of the demagogue j having won it, he used it for the public welfare without fear or favour. He was master, and his mastery enforced even-handed justice. Even during the brief periods of time that Caesar was able to pass in Rome, his hand was felt in every department of government. He was appointed Perpetual Dictator, Caesar's and all the officers of state became his nominees ; Measures. but the appointments, including his own, were made in accord- ance with republican forms. He reorganised the Senate, adding to it large numbers of the non-Senatorial class. He limited the system of free distribution of corn, into which the cheap distribution initiated by Gracchus had degenerated. But for the purposes of the new empire the most important changes he introduced concerned the provinces. He successfully carried out that planting of large colonies of Roman citizens of which Gracchus had dreamed, and he extended the Roman citizenship among the provincials themselves. But, most important of all, the irresponsibility of provincial governors was brought to an end. Under the republican system the provincial governor- ships followed upon offices held in Rome as a matter of course ; and the governors were prone simply to use their term of office for the replenishment of their own pockets. Now the governors were selected and appointed by Caesar himself, and were responsible to Caesar for doing their duty in the governorship. Lastly, both in the provinces and the army subordinate officers were appointed by Caesar himself, and were responsible to him instead of being the creatures of generals and proconsuls. Caesar's two principal officers in Italy at the time of his murder were Lepidus and Marcus Antonius. But among the men whom he had nominated for governorships were not a few of the conspirators, and no man could tell into whose hands the supreme power would now fall. To these various candidates for power was added the youthful Octavianus, whom Caesar had adopted as his heir. The conspirators intended to restore the
