222 THE LATER MIDDLE AGES Almost throughout this period we have seen England as the rival of France. King Edward i. was frequently engaged in contests with the French king over questions of their feudal rights, but the great struggle did not begin till the reign of his grandson, Edward III. Edward I. himself was mainly engaged in consolidating the English state, seeking first to bring our whole island under one dominion ; and secondly, to strengthen the king's government as against the barons, and also as against the Church. He failed in his Scottish In- nrst object, for, though he conquered Wales and dependence, repeatedly overran Scotland, the Scots rose again whenever his back was turned ; and finally, under the leadership of King Robert Bruce, compelled England to acknowledge their independence during the reign of Edward n., on whom they inflicted a terrific defeat at Bannockburn. Through- 1314 out the long period of the French wars, English and Scots perpetually raided each other's territory, and during the fifteenth century Scottish troops won more than one important victory for the French in France. A strong central government never existed in Scotland, except under Robert the Bruce, and about a century afterwards under James i. This was natural, since all but two of the Scots kings, after the great King Robert, were young children when they came to the throne. The country was torn by the factions of nobles, but the one sure way of uniting the factions was by attempting to assert English supremacy. But if Edward's scheme for forming one united kingdom failed, he succeeded in establishing in England a system of The English government in advance of that of any other Constitu- European country. He gave permanence to the tlon * English parliament; he gave it in 1295 a shape which lasted with little modification for more than five hundred years. The right of parliament to grant or withhold supplies was established, as was also the great principle that the government, the king, and the officers of state, may not over- ride the law. In the long French wars all Englishmen were well aware that the English victories were won by the common folk, the archers, more than by the prowess of mail-
