acquired. This is possible through division of labor. And division of labor demands specialism. The collective opinion is formed not by fusion of individual opinions, but by their juxtaposition. Democratic self-government may be compared to the consultation of stockholders in an industrial society. To say that democracies are intellectually impotent is to argue that control should be vested in the cultured classes. But a common man of good sense may be more competent for this than a cultivated man, as parliamentary journals show. The problem of democracy appears to be a very complex aggregate of questions of economic history, sociology and politics, of positive and ideal right, of demographic statistics, and of general civilization. It cannot be treated except by the collaboration of a multitude of special sciences. It is a problem which this sociology is not able to touch.—Charles Anders: "Sociologie et democratie," in Revue de Metaphysique et de Morale, March 1896.
Out-of-Work Insurance.—A notice of "Zur Frage der Arbeitslosenversicherung," by Dr. G. Schanz (Bamberg: Buchner's Verlag). It is universally recognized that a state of non-employment is one of the greatest evils from which the laboring classes suffer. The importance of out-of-work insurance ought to be kept before us, so that an insurance organization may be gradually formed. Every experiment thus far shows that tremendous difficulties are in the way. The book gives a valuable description of the attempts at such insurance made in England, Germany, Austria, Switzerland and France. Of particular interest are the attempts at compulsory insurance in Switzerland. In the nature of things, no insurance is so liable to misuse. The cost of it is also an important consideration. The author proposes a peculiar compulsory savings organization established by law, through which the laborer can make provision for cases of non-employment. About 1 per cent. of the laborer's wages would be required to maintain it. The writer has doubtless contributed to the clearing up of the question; but we cannot expect any plan to be consummated very soon.—Dr. Wörishoffer: "Zur Frage der Arbeitslosen-Versicherung," in Zeitschrift für die gesamte Staatswissenschaft, No. 2, 1896.
Rural Banks.—One of the means, fostered by the Roman Catholic Church in France, for social amelioration is the institution known as "Caisses Rurales." Founded some sixty years ago by the mayor of the rural commune of Baviere-Rhenane, they were received with great favor not only in France but also in north Italy, Switzerland and Austria. Their development was quite slow, but during the last three years 340 of these banks have been established under the leadership of M. Louis Durand. The purpose of this institution is to relieve the cultivator from the burden of usury, exacted by the money-lenders, sometimes at the rate of 200 per cent. Without some pecuniary resource, the cultivator is oftentimes little better than a mendicant. These banks are really cooperative civil societies, with variable capital and unlimited responsibility. They do not enter into general commercial transactions, but are merely local collective or cooperative societies. Their unlimited responsibility is thus guarded, and in the entire sixty years no person has lost a cent through these banks. The ideal is the establishment of a rural or workman's bank in every parish. (Les Caisses Rurales, by M. De Castelmore, in L'Association Catholique for February 1896.)
Old Age Pensions for Laborers.—The current agitation for the pensioning of invalid and aged workmen makes pertinent a study of this class. Out of a total Belgian population of 6,069,321 there are 390,980 males and 426,462 females aged 55 years and upwards. Out of every 1000 inhabitants there are, of those above 64 years of age, 63 in Belgium, 43 in Germany, 34 in Austria, 47 in Switzerland, 44 in England, 68 in France, 49 in Italy, 54 in Norway, 39 in Victoria, 15 in Queensland, 23 in New Zealand, 29 in Cape Colony, and 34 in the United States. In Belgium it is shown that in urban groups females preponderate both in the old age group (65 and upwards) and in the total population, while in rural groups the reverse is true. The aged are relatively more numerous in rural than in urban groups. The ratio of this preponderance has increased in Belgium (1866-1890) from 2 to 3 per 1000, though the total proportion of aged has decreased from 14.1 to 13.5 per 1000 during the same period. Statistical tables are given showing that in the industries less of those over 60 years of
