846 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY
In theory the Anglo-Saxon man of today is very largely an " individualist," e. g., in his religious views of "personal salvation," in his political views of "inalienable rights," in his economic views of " private property." In practice, however, his individualism is fortunately modified by his traditional and instinctive loyalty to church, to family, to party, and to nation. This present-day sharp division of theory and practice is, to say the least, unfortunate.
2. In opposition to the individualistic doctrine is the communistic view, which makes the individual a means and society th'e end. This is the military ideal, in which the individual is reduced to a pawn to be played for some higher stake (sup- posedly) than he personally represents. If communism is the e.\treme "military" view, individualism may be considered as the extreme " leisure class " view.
III. The persistent survival of these two theories of society indicates that they each embody a partially adequate truth, demanding a larger and more inclusive theory to do justice to both. This theory, already being advanced by many writers, is, that society is an organism, i. e., a bod)' in which the whole acts in the action of every part ; or where the degree to which the whole acts in the action of the part is the degree of the organization of the body. This necessitates a conception of the individual as a functioning organ in society. But this means a very different view from those indi- cated above. It takes only one atom to make a complete atom, but it takes a com- plete organism to make a complete organ. Just as the whole nervous and functional activity of the body is on analysis seen to be involved in the act of the foot in walk- ing or kicking, so all the resources of the whole of society are coming to be seen as involved in the daily action of the individual in transacting his business, solving his problems, or eating his dinner. But while the whole body with all its functions thus operates in the operations of every member, yet each member in its functioning has individuality. For its does not follow, because the functioning hand is the whole body functioning in the hand, and similarly with the foot, that, therefore, the hand is the foot. Organic identity is not mathematical equality. The former holds fast to all differences, while the latter abstracts from all differences.
We. may say, then, that just as the ultimate fact in physiology is neither body nor organs, but the system of organs, the system being but the unity of the different organs in their reciprocity of function, each organ using every other to help it in its work, and, in that very subordination of others to itself, subordinating itself to all the others and cooperating with them ; so in the social organism the ultimate fact, the unit, is neither the body politic, nor the separate individual ; neither a preexistent person built up with others into society, nor an impersonal society subordinating individuals; but thf-socicty-of-indiviiluals, or the-individual-iti-society, each term getting its meaning and worth from the other — in Latin terminology, the socius.
IV. Some of the considerations that support this organic view of society are that:
1. It does justice to the truth of both individualism and communism; to the former by recognizing the uniqueness and the indefeasible rights of the individual ; and to the latter by recognizing the interdependence of men, and the further fact that their rights get reality ultimately only through the sanction of their fellows.
2. This view is also corroborated by recent investigations into the development of self-consciousness. Children get their first notions of persons, not from their knowledge of themselves as isolated individuals, but from their perception of what their immediate neighbors are in relation to their 07vn activities and interests.
3. Social confirmation of opinions, moreover, even about objects of sense, is quite necessary to the most originil and obstinately independent man. Any man may be made insane by the persistent unreasonable conduct of all his fellows toward him.
V. This conception of the nature of the individual and of society, finally, has an important bearing upon some serious questions of the present day ; conspicuously three, viz., of sovereignty, of personal rights, and of punishment.
I. According to the organic concept, sovereignty is located neither exclusively in the government nor exclusively in the individual (for this misconceives their nature), but in both as constituting the total system which is the ultimate reality. Thus the government must look to the character of the individuals to get light upon its govern- ing functions, while the individual must look to the government to make his individu- ality and personality possible. \\\z absolute sovereign zsxv never permanently be merely
