sought to obviate this by forbidding the sale of such country. It was not however till later, and probably by degrees, that it was decided, principally under the Caliph Hishām, to alter the principle of taxation, though the alteration is much obscured by tradition. The tribute, which was principally drawn from the ground tax, was converted into a ground tax pure and simple, and was levied irrespective of creed on all property owners; the tribute intended to demonstrate the dominion of the Arabs was resolved into an individual poll-tax of the old sort, which was only payable by non-Muslims and ceased in the event of conversion. This state of affairs is regarded by tradition as Omar's work, but it is the result of gradual development extending over a century. This very energetic manner in which the Arabs applied themselves to the administration commenced with 'Abd-al-Malik and found its termination under the Abbasids.
Under 'Abd-al-Malik and his viceroys, his brother 'Abd-al-'Azīz in Egypt and Ḥajjāj in 'Irāḳ, an executive authority was founded, which, although occasionally shaken by serious revolts, was nevertheless strong, so that his successor Walīd (705-715) was again able to consider the question of an extension of the boundaries. Under his rule the Arabian Empire attained its greatest expansion; Spain was conquered, and the Arabs penetrated into the Punjab and far into Central Asia, right to the borders of China. These incursions however do not fall within the range of our present observation. Under 'Abd-al-Malik and Walīd the empire, and above all Syria, stands on the pinnacle of prosperity; the most stately buildings were erected, such as the Omar Mosque in Jerusalem, and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus. Poetry flourished at the brilliant Syrian court, and, guided by Christian learning, Arabian science begins to make its appearance.
Now however the traces of impending collapse begin to appear. It was only with difficulty that Ḥajjāj suppressed a powerful military revolt. The supremacy of the State could only be maintained in 'Irāḳ with the assistance of Syrian troops. In the eastern provinces the Ḳais and Kalb wage constant warfare with each other, and the reign of the later Umayyads is occupied in a struggle with these permanently mutinous eastern districts. Most of the later Umayyads enjoyed but a brief reign, Sulaimān 715-717, Omar II till 720, Yazīd II till 724. Hishām, 724-743, who grappled seriously with the problem of agrarian policy, and secured once again in Khālid al-Ḳasrī a viceroy for the East after the style of Ziyād and Ḥajjāj, was the only one capable of restoring once more a certain amount of quiet.
Thereupon however followed the irretrievable decline of the Umayyad State. The political opposition of Ḳais and Kalb converted the Caliph into the puppet of inter-tribal feuds; Umayyads fought against Umayyads. The rulers succeeded each other in rapid succession. History records four Umayyad Caliphs in the period of 743 to 744. It would
