DENMARK
730
DENMARK
Party rivalries and the steadily increasing propaganda
of Socialism kept the country in a state of turmoil, and
caused no little difficulty both to Christian IX and to
Frederick VIII, who succeeded to the throne on the
death of his aged father (29 January, 1906).
Langbbeck, ScriptQTCs rerum Danicarum tncdii asvi cont. by SnHM (Copenhagen, 1772-92); 8th vol. by Engelstoft and Werlauff (Copenhagen, 1834); Rordam ed., Monumenta histOTiag Danicoe (Copenhagen, 1871-84); Regesta diplomatica hist. Danic<e (Copenhagen, 1847-85); Bricka, Dansk bioaraph- isk Lexicon ((Copenhagen, 1877); Allen, Haandbog i FiiaemeS' landets Histnrie, 18th ed. (Copenhagen, ISSl), German tr. by Falk (2d ed.. Kiel, 1846); Whitte, Fadrelands Historic (Co- penhagen, 1884); Steenstrop, Ersley, and others, Dan- marks Higcs Historic (Copenhagen, 1896); Odhner, Laerobok i Sveriges, Norges och Danmarks Historia (Stockholm, 1886 — a very good outline); Dahlm.ann— Schafer, Geschichte Danemarks in the Geschichte der europ&ischen Staaten, of Heeren Uckert. For Schleswig-Holstein, the wars waged on its account, and the relations of the Hanseatic League to Denmark, see Dahlmann- WAtTZ, Quellenkunde (7th ed., Leipzig, 1906-07); Lavisse- Rambaud ed., Histoirc generale du 4* si?clc h nos jours (12 vols., Paris, 1893-1901); Nilsson, The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia, ed-, wth introduction, by Lubbock (London, 1868); MONTFiiiw, K 'ili^rqruchichte Schwedens l.l^e\pzie. 1906);
Engelhardt. l> ' "■ Early Iron Age (London. 1866);
Petersen, It,' !/ '.'n'e i Hedenold (2d ed., 1854-56);
Worsaae, Dai. ' , , iCopenhagen, 1843); Id.. Dendan-
skeKulturi V,L,,.u-i'l< u ;0.i)enhagen, 1873): If . Den -hnske Erobringaf England og Xonnfindiet iCopenhairt 1). is, ; , r.i ,.;v.. Vikingcme (Copenhagen, 1904); Styffe, Sk,n ; ./.r
unionsliden (Stockholm, 1880); Thrige, Dai.r. II ,r i
vort Aarhitndrede (2 vols., CJopenhagen, Ib^'J '..'U ; <i!j?.cii, De7iniark and Germany since 1S15 (London, 1S6-); Thors- ANDER, Dansk-lyska Kriget. 186A (Stockholm, 1888); Rosen- VINGE, SaTnlingar afgamle danske Love (Copenhagen, 1821—46); Matzen, Fordacsninger over d>'n .hnt^k'^ Rf't^ht^taric (Copen- hagen, 1893-97); Vaopell, II '.-' ' ///' (/. '"/.! (Copen- hagen, 1872-76); Garde, /;■ , - // Hislorie, ISSU-ISIU (Copenhagen, l.s.'.j i,i , 1.; , ,.' Vnn' Old- kyndighed (Copenhagen, ISGtJ . //.„'. im ...,,.' .Copenhagen, 1870).
LiTEHAET History. — It is manifest that no littri ture proper could exist in Denmark in pre-Christi m times. There exist, however, some 200 rune-stom some of whose inscriptions possess historical vahii The exploits of the vikings were first recorded b\ Saxon and some Icelandic chroniclers. These recortls are not always original, but are partly influenced by foreign myths. The principal subject is piratical ex ploits. With the adoption of Christianity the influence and use of the Latin tongue becomes predominant. The first products (twelfth century) here, as everywhere else, were lives of saints, followed in Lund and Ros- kilde by annalistic necrologies. The energetic Arch- bishop Absalon (q. v.), a man of much intellectual power, fostered greatly the growth of historical litera- ture. To his initiative we owe two important works : the "Compendiosa historia regum Daniae", by Svend Aageson, and the voluminous "Gesta Danorum", by Saxo Grammaticus, the latter part of which chronicles events of his own personal experience or such as were related to him by eyewitnesses, while its introductory chapters often rest on pure tradition. Among the poetical creations of the earliest times must be men- tioned the didactic poem "Hexaemeron", by Anders Suneson (b. 1165), who also composed a poem, now lost, oh the seven sacraments, and various hynins. The first attempts to put the ancient "folk-law" into writing were made in the thirteenth century. The "Jydske Lov", also accepted in Schleswig, was re- duced to writing by order of Waldemar the Victorious (1241). Simultaneously the ancient laws of Skane and Zealand were written down. The ecclesiastical law also was soon a subject for literary treatment. The thirteenth century, moreover, saw the appearance of popular treatises on herbs and stones, cookery- books, and a kind of encyclopedia, the "Lucidariiis", whose pages contain not only catechetical instruction, but also information as to geography and nature. Fanciful descriptions of voyages and translations of French romances of knightly adventures gained a wide circle of readers. The "Rhymed Chronicle" (supposed to be written by a monk of Soroe) sought to kindle in the hearts of its readers love for their country.
From Peter Laale's "Collection of Proverbs" we ob-
tain a fairly definite picture of the contemporary
civilization of Denmark.
Religious literature owes much to the Brigittines (see Bridget of Sweden). Apart from the " Revela- tions" of their foundress, they produced homilies, prayer-books, lives of the saints, hymns to the Blessed Virgin ; a translation of the Bible was also undertaken (1480). The most important rehgious poet of the Danish Middle Ages was Michael Nicolai, parish priest of St. iVlban's at Otiense. There is still extant a large work by him entitled " Rosary of the Most Bl. Virgin " (1496), not entirely original, however. He also com- posed short poems. Some of his writings, printed at Copenhagen (1514), were incorporated with changes in the Lutheran hymn-book.
In literature, Denmark, for easily intelligible rea- sons, has accomplished less than the great nations of Europe. Folk-songs of varied character, however, were always abundant. These compositions were not wTitten down till late, and even now they are a rich mine for Danish poets. When the religious upheaval carried Denmark away from the Catholic Church, the Scan- dinavians had reached a comparatively low deree of
culture. Since 1497 there had been a university at
Copenhagen, but this was scarcely more than an en-
larged cathedral-school, and was even discontinued for
a time (1531). The Reformation did little to raise the
plane of general culture. After the property of the
Church had been confiscated, literature and science
were no longer maintained, and there arose a universal
complaint of the encroachment of barbarism. Few
were willing to send their children to school; still
smaller was the number of those who matriculated at
the university. More than half of the forty profes-
sors whom Christian III appointed at its reopening
were Germans. The king and his court never used
the Danish language. Students of theology ' were
forced to frequent Wittenberg or Rostock. A dena-
tionalized civilization and an exaggerated interest in
theology were the natural consequences. For litera-
ture it was a poor and barren epoch, and in it, apart
from Bible-translations, church hymns, and polemical
essays, there appeared only lifeless academic dramas
and spiritless, imperfect poetiy.
Towards the middle of the seventeenth century theo- logy lost its sway over men's minds. Other fickls, especially the exact sciences, began to absorb the at- tention of scholars. During this period Denmark produced men like Steno and his relative Minslow (both of whom became Catholics), Tj-cho Brahe, and others, all of whom may be regarded as pioneers in their respective branches. At the same time, a keen interest was displayed in antiquarian research, and called forth the first editions of Icelandic sagas. By contact with other countries, secular poetry, . uncul- tivated during the Reformation period, began to
