HEBREW
175
HEBREW
after the last judgment accidental beatitude will re-
ceive some increase from the union of soul and body,
and from the sight of the new heaven and the earth.
In addition to the authorities cited in the text, the following works may be consulted: Petrus Lombardus, IV Sent., dist. xlix, and his commentators: St. Thomas. I, Q. xii: I-II. Q. ii, aa. 1-5: Suppl., ix, 92-6, and his commentators: Lessius, Desummo bono, I. 2: Petavius, De Deo, I, 7: Thomassinus, De Deo, I, 6: ScHNlJTGEN, Die vimo bealifica (Wiirzburg, 1867); Merie, Les elus se reconnaUront au del (Paris, 1881) : Blot, Das Wiederer- kennen in Himmel (10th ed., ftlainz, 1900); Scheeben and KiJPPER, Die Mysterien dee Christenthums (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1898), sec. 93; Scheeben and Atzberger, Handbuch der kath. Dogmatifc, IV (Freiburg, 1903), sec. 414 sqq.; Heinrich and Gutberlet, Dogtnalische Theologie, X (Munster, 1904), sec. 613 sqq. ; Atzberger, Die chrislliehe Eschatologie. I (Freiburg, 1890) and II (1896); Badtz, Der Himmel (Mainz, 1881); Schneider, Das andere Leben (8th ed., Paderbom, 1905): Hur- TER, Compendium theol. dogm.. Ill (11th ed.. Innsbruck, 1903), 631 sqq.; Pesch, Prcel. dogm., II (3rded., Freiburg ini Br.. 1906), 25sqq.,and III (1908), 230 sqq.; Billot, Z>enoi-issimis (Rome, 19()2): recent manuals of dogmatic theology, e. g., Pohle.
Joseph Hontheim.
Hebrew Accents. See Hebrew Language and
Literature.
Hebrew Bible. — .\s compared with the Latin Vul- gate, the Hebrew Bible includes the entire Old Testament with the exception of the seven deutero- canonical books, Tobias, Judith, Wisdom, Ecclesias- ticus, Baruch, I and II Machabees, and the deutero- canonical portions of Esther (x, 4 to end) and Daniel (iii, 24-90; xiii; xiv). So far as Jewish tradition testi- fies, these books and passages never belonged to the official Hebrew Bible, though Hebrew was the original langviage of Ecclesiasticus, most probably also of Baruch and I Mach., and either Hebrew or the closely allied Aramaic, of Tobias, Judith, and the additions to Esther, also, according to some, the additions to Daniel. Even if several of these books were written in Aramaic, that fact alone would not account for their exclusion from the Hebrew Bible, since lengthy pas- sages of Daniel (ii, 4, to vii, 28) and of Esdras (iv, 7, to vi, 18; vii, 12 to 26) are in that language. The Protes- tant versions adopt the contents of the Hebrew Bible only.
By its threefold division, which antedates the pro- logue to Ecclesiasticus, into the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings, or Hagiographa, the Hebrew Bible differs considerably from the arrangement and order of the Septuagint, which have been adopted by the Vulgate and the Protestant versions. The Law con- tained the five books of Moses in the unvarying order of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuter- onomy. The Prophets comprised the four books of the Former Prophets, in the unvarying order of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings; and the four books of the Latter Prophets, Isaias, Jeremias, Ezechiel, Minor Prophets (all twelve counted as forming one book). The Writings comprised the remaining eleven books, the poetical works, Psalms, Proverbs, Job, the five Megilloth, or Rolls ((Canticle of Canticles, Ruth, Lamen- tations, Ecclesiastes, Esther), and finally Daniel, Es- dras, Nehemias, Chronicles — twenty-four books in all, though perhaps more frequently reckoned as twenty- two by counting Ruth with Judges, and Lamentations with Jereniias. The above order is that of the printed Bibles, which, in the case of the Latter Prophets and the Hagiographa, differs widely from that prescribed in the Babylonian Talmud, while no fixed order ob- tains in the manuscripts. In this arrangement the most noteworthy differences from the Vulgate are the classifying of the historical books as prophetical, the placing of the Latter Prophets before the Hagio- grapha, the ranking of Daniel not with the Prophets, but with the Hagiographa, and the grouping together of the five Rolls, which is a witness to the special favour they enjoyed of being read publicly on certain feasts. The Hebrew names for the sacred V^ooks of the Pentateuch differ from our own, which are derived from the Septuagint.
With the arrangement into books, the labours of the
earliest editors seem to have ended; they made no
further division into sections or chapters. The text at
first was a close succession of consonantal letters with-
out vowel-signs or spacing or punctuation to guide the
reader; but Jewish scholars through many centuries
of painstaking care have provided a most perfect
system of helps to the intelligent reading of the He-
brew Bible. Words were separated at an early date,
perhaps before Christ. This was imperative, as the
letters were frequently combined in different ways.
The Septuagint translation bears witness not seldom
to a combination different from the Massoretic. Verse
divisions, too, were made by the early scribes, who
found this necessary not only to aid the reading, but
to guard against the intrusion of new verses. Uni-
formity did not obtain, however, as the Palestinian
Jews, we are told, had shorter verses than the Baby-
lonian. The present system is that of neither, but was
partly a new arrangement elaborated by the Masso-
retes. The care taken is shown by the fact that every
verse, in fact every letter, w-as counted by the scribes.
Our chapter divisions were unknown to early Jewish
scholars, who had their own divisions, according to
sense, into the open and closed sections. A change in
sul)ject was marked by the open section, so called be-
cause of the vacant space showing its close, which was
either the remainder of an unfilled line or a blank line
succeeding a full line. The closed section began a
minor break in thought, indicated only by a short
interval of space, the new section recommencing on
the same line, or after a brief interval at the lieginning
of the next line. In late manuscripts and in printed
Bibles, the open section is indicated by the letter Pe
in the vacant space preceding it, the closed section by
the letter Samech.
The Christian division into chapters, invented by Archljishop Stephen Langton about the beginning of the thirteenth century, has gained an entrance into the Hebrew Bible. The beginning was made by Rabbi Solomon ben Ismael who, according to Ginsburg, first (c. .\. D. 1.3.30) placed the numerals of these chapters in the margin of the Hebrew text. In printed Bibles this system made its first appearance in the first two Bomberg editions of 1518. Arias Montanus, in his Antwerp Bible of 1571, "broke up the Hebrew text itself into chapters and introduced the Hebrew nu- merals into the body of the text itself" (Ginsburg). This, though contrary to the Massoretic directions, is still followed in nearly all printed Bibles on account of its great usefulness. In most instances (617 out of 779) the chapter coincides with one or other of the Masso- retic sections. In Bomberg's great Bible of 1547-8, Hebrew numerals were affixed to every fifth verse. It was in the above mentioned Antwerp Bible that the Arabic numerals for all the verses were first placed against them in the margin, though this had been done on a more limited scale in the "Basle Psalter "of 1563. A further division of the text was for liturgical purposes. It was the custom in Palestine to complete the Penta- teuch in Sabbath readings every three years ; the vari- ous .sections into which the text was thus divided were called ■•iedarim. The same name was applied to the sections from the Prophets and the Hagiographa ap- pointed to be read at the same service. The length of a sednr may be judged approximately from the fact that the fifty chapters of Genesis are counted as forty- five sedarim, the forty chapters of Exodus as thirty- three sedarini. Instead of the triennial cycle, the Babylonian Jews had an annual cycle, and the Talmud divides the Law into fifty -four sections called Parashiyoth, one for each Sabbath of the intercalary year. The corresponding readings from the Prophets were called Haphtaroth, or dismissals, because they were read before the close of the ser- vice (see Bible; Canon of the Holy Scriptures; Criticism, Biblical; Manuscripts op the Bible;
