CONVENTICLE 134 CONVOCATION CONVENTICLE, a small gathering for religious worship. The word was ap- plied to the schools of Wycliffe. After- ward it was used of Dissenters from the Establishment in Queen Elizabeth's time, but it did not come into great prominence till the passing of the Uni- formity Act in 1662. CONVENTION, the act of coming to- gether or assembling; the state of being assembled. The word convention has in the United States an association of ideas pregnant with all that is most important in our political history. The secession conventions held in the Southern States, resulted in the Civil War of 1860-1865. Several times have constitutional con- ventions been called — the most impor- tant being those held in the Southern States during the "Reconstruction" pe- riod. The great national political parties meet in convention to nominate candi- dates for President, and the same method of nomination prevails down to the smallest candidate for the lowest muni- cipal or county office. Many conventions for miscellaneous purposes are annually held. In English history the word is applied to an extraordinary meeting of the Houses of Lords and Commons at a time of national crisis or revolution, without being called together by the writ of the sovereign or waiting to ask his assent. The name is specially applied (a) to the Parliament summoned, not by the sov- ereign, but by Gen. Monk, which met on April 25, 1660, and restored Charles II., and (b) to the Parliament convened by the Prince of Orange, who at the time was not King of England. It met on Jan. 22, 1689, and bestowed the kingdom on its author and his vnte, William and Mary. In French history the word is applied to what was more fully named the Na- tional Convention, which succeeded the National Legislative Assembly on Sept. 21, 1792, and was dissolved Oct. 26, 1795. It began by abolishing royalty and pro- claiming a republic. In diplomacy, a convention is equiva- lent to a treaty. Thus there have been conventions by the United States with the leading nations of the world to se- cure uniform and reciprocal action for special purposes. CONVEBSE, FLORENCE, an Ameri- can writer, born in New Orleans in 1871. She graduated from Wellesley College in 1893. From 1908 she was a member of the staff of the "Atlantic Monthly." Her novels include "The Burden of Chris- topher" (1900) ; "The House of Prayer" (1908); "The Children of Light" (1912). She also wrote "The Story of Wellesley" (1915) and "The Blessed Birthday," a play (1917). CONVERSE, FREDERICK SHEP- HERD, an American composer, born in Newton, Mass., in 1871. He graduated from Harvard University in 1893. After studying music in Munich, he bece ne instructor of harmony at the New Eng- land Conservatory of Music. From 1904 to 1907 he was assistant professor of music at Harvard University. He com- posed many songs and other musical works, including "The Pipe of Desire," an opera; "Job," an opera; and many cantatas, tone poems, and other musical work. He was one of the best known of American composers. CONVICT LABOR, the emplojrment of convicts in the production of useful com- modities as a means of lessening the cost of prison administration and for the moral betterment of the convicts. This has been accomplished through various systems, the first of which, in point of time, is the "lease system," still em- ployed in many Southern States. Here convicts are directly turned over to pri- vate contractors or employers, and prac- tically the whole responsibility devolves on them. Many abuses have been the result, convicts being often retained in a condition of chattel slavery long after the expiration of their terms, in many cases imposed on them for trivial of- fenses. This system is now universally condemned and is fast going out of prac- tice. Instead the "public account" system is being adopted by an ever-growing number of States. Here the labor is performed on State premises and the prison authorities are in full control. In some of the States the commodities man- ufactured are sold on the open, competi- tive market. This method has aroused considerable opposition from organized labor. In other States only such com- modities are manufactured which can be used in other departments of the Gov- ernment. This plan is especially favored by the national Commission on Prisons and Prison Labor. In several States, as in New Jersey, the convicts are paid regular wages, which they may collect at the expiration of their terms. In 1920, however, no employment was given prisone -s in 29 States. CONVOCATION, an assembly of the clergy. Specifically the name given to either of two such gatherings, the one termed the Convocation of Canterbury, or simply Convocation, the other the Convocation of York. In theory the Church of England is governed by means of the convocations of its bishops and clergy. Each of the two ecclesias-
