DRAWING AND QUARTERING 421 DREAMS a wider significance. Highly finished paintings in water-color are called drawings, as are also sketches or studies in oils. Drawing, in its restricted sense, may be divided into these kinds: (1) pen drawing; (2) chalk drawing, which may include lead-pencil drawing; (3) crayon drawing; (4) drawing shaded with the brush or hair-pencil; (5) architectural or mechanical drawing. Architectural and mechanical draw- ings are those in which the proportions of a building, or machine, are accurately set out for the guidance of the construc- tor; objects are in general delineated by geometric or orthographic projection. The great schools of painting differ from one another as much in their draw- ing as in their painting. In Italy the Roman school, through Raphael's fine sense for the beautiful and expressive in form, and through his study of the antique, became the true teacher of beautiful drawing. The Florentine school tried to surpass the Roman pre- cisely in this particular, but it lost by exag^ration what it had gained by learnmg and a close study of anatomy. In the Lombard school a tender style of drawing is seen through harmonious coloring, and in the Venetian school the drawing is often veiled in the richness of the color. The Dutch school excels in a careful and minute style of natural- istic drawing, combined with great ex- cellence in coloring. The French school in the time of Poussin was very accurate in its drawing; at a later period its style betrayed a great amount of mannerism. David introduced again a purer taste in drawing and a close study of the an- tique, and these are qualities which dis- tinguished his school (the so-called classical school) from the romantic and eclectic schools of a later period. The drawing of the British school is natural- istic rather than academic. It has of late years much improved in accuracy and expressiveness. DRAWING AND QUARTERING, the punishment for treason in Great Britain in force till 1870. DRAYTON, MICHAEL, an English poet; bom near Atherstone in Warwick- shire in 1563. His most celebrated com- position is "Polyolbion." He wrote also several dramas, among them "Sir John Oldcastle"; and "Poems Lyrick and Pastorall" (1605), including the cele- brated "Ballad of Agincourt." He died Dec. 23, 1631. DRAYTON, THOMAS FENWICK, an American military oflicer; born in South Carolina about 1807. He was graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1828, and resigned from the army in 1836. He entered the Confederate army upon the outbreak of the Civil War. He played a prominent part during the at- tack on Port Royal, commanding a force in Fort Walker which he was forced to evacuate. He died in Florence, S. C, Feb. 18, 1891. DREAMS, subjective phenomena de- pendent on natural causes, or trains of ideas which present themselves to the mind during sleep. The principal fea- ture of the state of dreaming is the ab- sence of voluntary control over the cur- rent of thought, so that the principle of suggestion has unlimited sway. The ut- ter want of coherency in the images that appear before the mental eye excites no surprise in the dreamer. We dream because our brain is in a condition of partial activity. Some maintain that no sleep is ever so pro- found as to be perfectly dreamless. With an over-congested brain, there is a tend- ency to a rapid succession of vivid dreaming, interrupted by intervals of wakefulness. The brain cells are too excited by the excess of blood to pass into a condition of repose, and their ac- tivity tends to keep up the congestion of the organ. The onset of acute disease (especially when affecting the nervous system) is not infrequently heralded by continued dreaming or continued sleep- lessness. Depressing dreams should al- ways be regarded as an indication of need for attention to health, or to relax- ation from work, more especially, per- haps, by those engaged in professional pursuits. The special character of many dreams is determined by the conditions of the organs of the thorax and abdomen, and of the muscular system. For example, the presence of indigestible food in the stomach, by embarrassing the breathing and the action of the heart, suggests the ideas of the various forms of nightmare, the monster, or the crushing weight, from which there is no escape, which are closely akin to the sensations in- duced by similar effects on the heart during the day. An uncomfortable posi- tion in bed, a strained condition of the muscular system, will cause dreams of falling over precipices or of strug- gling. Certain drugs give a specific character to dreams. The magnificent visions of the opium stupor have been made familiar by the classical account of De Quincey. Excessive indulgence in alcohol gives rise to delirious dreams characterized by unfounded dread and suspicion. Occasionally intellectual ef- forts are made during sleep which it would be difl!icult to surpass in the wak- ing state.
