COLOMBIA 65 COLOMBIA their tangua and other stately palms, their rare balsamic resins and valuable dyewoods, are ablaze with flowers and creepers, and steeped in the perfume of the delicate vanilla orchid. In the tem- perate zone, from 3,200 to 8,500 feet above the sea, many of these plants are equally common, but the cocoanut palm gives place to the oak, the encenillo, groups of laurels, and arborescent ferns, and here flourish the coffee plant, the odorous cherimoya and curibano, the fig, and the cinchona tree. The wax-palm extends beyond this region, and is found at a height of nearly 11,000 feet, and large crops of potatoes, grain, and le- guminous plants are raised in the cold regions. In the N. departments, and in the immense llanos of the E. great herds of cattle, descended from those imported by the Spaniards, are reared; in the central districts, shorthorns and other English, Dutch, and Norman cattle and horses have been introduced, and are largely raised throughout the temperate zone. Among the natural mineral products are gold, silver, iron, copper, lead, coal, sulphur, zinc, antimony, ar- senic, cinnabar, rock-salt, crystal, gran- ite, marble, lime, gypsum, jet, ame- thysts, rubies, porphyry, and jasper; while much of the world's platinum is obtained from the upper San Juan, and the principal source of the finest emer- alds is at Muzo in Boyaca. Commerce and Production. — The im- ports in 1918 amounted to £4,406,800 and the exports to £7,545,712. The chief trade is carried on with the United States. The principal articles of ex- port are coffee, bananas, gold, silver, and platinum. The chief imports are flour, lard, petroleum, and cotton works from the tlnited States and Great Brit- ain. Only a small part of the country is under cultivation. While much of the area is fertile, its development is pre- vented by lack of communication and transport. The chief product is coffee. Tobacco is also grovni and cotton is pro- duced in several provinces. Finance, — The estimated revenue for 1920-1921 was 22,000,000 gold pesos, and the estimated expenditure the same amount. The revenue in 1919-1920 was 15,307,350 pesos, and the expenditure 15,307,345 pesos. The external debt in 1919 was £3,766,746. The internal debt in 1919 was 4,500,432 gold pesos. Railways. — There are 15 lines of rail- ways, of which 10 are national and 5 are owned by British companies. The total length of track is 740 miles. The government has undertaken the improve- ment of the main roads, but in general the roads are scarcely more than mule tracks. Much of the inland traffic is by river, and the lower and upper Magda- lene are being improved and cleared. From 1891 numerous attempts have been made to construct a ship canal across the Isthmus of Panama following the line of the railroad. The French com- pany failed, and in 1903 sold out their franchise and property to the United States Government, and in the same year Panama seceded from Colombia and became an independent state. See Panama. Government. — The government is that of a republic, the chief magistrate being a president, elected for six years. The president has a cabinet consisting of six members, responsible to Congress. The legislative power vests in a Congress of two Houses, called the Senate and House of Representatives. The Senate, numbering 34, is composed of three representatives from each department. The House of Representatives is elected for four years by universal suffrage and consists of one member for each 50,000 inhabitants. Congress elects for a term of two years a substitute, who, failing the president and vice-president during the presidential term, fills the vacancy. Education, Religion, etc. — In 1870 a system of compulsory education was adopted which has, on the whole, proved successful. Public instruction is under the direction of the Minister of Public Instruction, There were in 1917 5,488 primary schools, with 430,707 pupils, and 5,733 teachers. Nearly all the schools for secondary education are carried on by religious corporations of the Cath- olic Church. There are nearly 400 sec- ondary and professional schools with about 35,000 pupils. There are about 100 art and trade schools with about 8,000 pupils. The chief university is that of Bogota, which was founded in 1572. There are also universities at Medellin, Cartegena, Popayan, and Pasto. There were in 1918 29 normal schools. The annual expenditure for education is about 1,000,000 pesos. The State Church is the Roman Cath- olic, which in the management of its own affairs is independent of civil authority; religious orders were suppressed in 1863, and toleration in matters of re- ligion is guaranteed; but, by the terms of a concordat entered into with the Holy See in 1888, religion is one of the obligatory subjects of study in all educa- tional establishments. History. — The N. coasts of Colombia were visited by Ojeda and Amerigo Ves- pucci, in 1499, and afterward by Bas- tidas; in 1502 Columbus explored part of the country, and endeavored to found
