prosecuted, and I am as sure as I am of my existence that if you are prosecuted you will be convicted; there is scarce a sacrifice that I will not make rather than that you should publish.' For a time the book was sold privately. Subsequently it was advertised as by an 'Oxford graduate;' and no prosecution having been instituted, it was published with Bentham's name.
In the following year appeared a pamphlet, 'Swear not at all,' which is an exposure of the needlessness and mischievousness, as 'well as anti-christian character, of the ceremony of an oath. Bentham exposed the immorality of oaths as used in 'the two Church of England universities, more especially in the University of Oxford.' This was one of those great strokes which Bentham from time to time struck at abuses; a whole system of rubbish toppled over and fell to the ground under his blows.
When young, Bentham was not a radical in politics. He had come of a tory family, and when at Oxford he was accustomed, he tells us, to speak of Charles I as 'the Royal Martyr.' But his ideas underwent a great change. He became convinced that under a democratic government 'the greatest happiness of the greatest number was likely to be most advanced. As early as 1809 he had written a tract entitled 'A Catechism of Parliamentary Reform, or Outline of a Plan of Parliamentary Reform in the form of Question and Answer,' recommending the exclusion from the House of Commons of place men, annual elections, uniform electoral districts, the granting of the suffrage to all who paid a certain amount of taxes, and secret voting (vol. iii. 539). It was not published until 1817; in fact, not a little of the manuscript has never been printed. Impressed by the dangers to the security of English liberties, he then issued it with an introduction, in which he pointed out that the sole remedy was democratic ascendency, and to bring about this parliamentary reform — that is, the establishment of virtual universal suffrage and vote by ballot — was necessary. At the instance of Sir Francis Burdett he drafted a series of resolutions on the subject, which were moved in the House of Commons in 1818. James Mill, Burdett, Cartwright, and many others co-operated with Bentham in this work; but several of the leading articles in the creed of philosophical radicalism are distinctly his original work. He gave a great impetus to radicalism by aiding in the establishment of the 'Westminster Review' in 1823. According to Sir John Bowring, who was its first editor, the funds for this undertaking were contributed by Bentham. He himself did not write much for its pages; apparently his sole contribution was an article, or rather commentary, on Mr. Humphrey's Real Property Code, which appeared in 1820. But he greatly influenced prominent contributors, such as James and John Mill, Bowring, and Colonel Perronet Thompson. In 1823 he went abroad to recruit his health, and visited Paris, where he was well known by the French editions of his works, and by reason of his former visits. He was received by his many friends with enthusiasm. 'On casually visiting one of the supreme courts, the whole body of advocates rose and paid him the highest marks of respect, and the court invited him to the seat of honour' (Annual Biography and Obituary, 1833, p. 329).
It becomes increasingly difficult as we approach the close of Bentham's life to state the order of his labours. It was his habit to carry on simultaneously several occupations, and to resume from time to time work which had been abandoned. His correspondence was immense, and it was carried on with the foremost of his contemporaries. He corresponded with Bolivar, the Emperor Alexander, Lord Sidmouth, the Duke of Wellington, and Quincy Adams about his favourite subject, codification. He sent circulars to the governors of the various states of the union as to public education. He wrote often to O'Connell and Brougham, his disciples, letters beginning 'My dearest best boy,' or 'Dan, dear child,' about law reform. He was untiring and ingenious in seeking to spread his principles whenever an opening presented itself. He endeavoured to enlist the Duke of Wellington in his scheme of law reform, promising him a name greater than Cromwell's if only he obeyed his directions, and attacked the English judicature and procedure systems. And he laboured without care or thought of reward; when the Emperor Alexander sent him a gracious letter with a packet containing a ring, he sent it back with the imperial seal unbroken (Parton's Life of Burr, 389). As an example of his readiness to avail himself of all openings for the entrance of his principles may be cited a still more remarkable letter, hitherto unpublished, which was addressed by him in 1828 to Mehemet Ali. It begins : 'Vous êtes au nombre des ornements les plus brillants du sièle présent, reste à couvrir de la splendeur de votre nom les siècles futurs. Ecoutez : je vais vous présenter les moyens d'établir cette permanence, et les seuls moyens.' He urges Mehemet Ali to give Egypt a constitution, and to declare himself independent of the Porte. He offers to
