in Egypt’ requires no help from the brass instruments of modern times, and he therefore inserted trombone parts and occasional drum passages almost wherever he pleased. Though we may deplore his want of refinement, we must remember that Costa perfectly suited the taste of his generation, and that but for him the national love of Handel would have been far less than it now is.
It is as a conductor that his name will longest endure, for he was the first master of the art who had appeared in England. Not so very long before his arrival the direction of the orchestra had been effected from a pianoforte or by the leader of the violins; the change to the present system of beating time from the front of the orchestra was introduced by Spohr in 1820, but it was some time before conducting became a separate art as it is at the present day. His chief characteristics as a conductor were his indomitable will, his absolute firmness and decision of beat, and his indefatigable energy; he possessed also no small amount of diplomacy, which was of the greatest use in managing recalcitrant prime donne and other mutinous persons. Though many of the subtleties of the highest kind of music were beyond his reach, he never failed to realise the general effect of the compositions he directed, and Meyerbeer, whose contribution to the music of the 1862 exhibition he conducted, was no doubt in earnest when he called him ‘the greatest chef d'orchestre in the world.’
[Grove's Dict. of Music; Quarterly Musical Magazine, x. 462, &c.; Harmonicon, vii. 273, &c.; Times, 30 April 1884; Musical Recollections of the Last Half-century; information from Dr. A. Nicholson.]
COSTARD, GEORGE (1710–1782), astronomical writer, was born at Shrewsbury in 1710, entered, about 1726, Wadham College, Oxford, of which body he became fellow and tutor, having taken degrees of B.A. and M.A. in 1731 and 1733. He was chosen proctor of the university in 1742, and on the death of Dr. Wyndham, in 1777, declined the wardenship of his college, on the ground of advanced age. His first ecclesiastical employment was the curacy of Islip, near Oxford, whence he was promoted to be vicar of Whitchurch, Dorsetshire. Finally, Lord Chancellor Northington, struck by the unusual attainments displayed in his writings, procured for him, in June 1764, the presentation to the vicarage of Twickenham, in which he continued until his death.
His two earliest works appeared anonymously—‘Critical Observations on some Psalms’ in 1733; ‘A Critical Dissertation concerning the words Daimōn and Daimonion, occasioned by two late Enquiries into the Meaning of Demoniacks in the New Testament’ in 1738. His learned researches into the history of astronomy opened in 1746 with ‘A Letter to Martin Folkes, Esq., concerning the Rise and Progress of Astronomy amongst the Ancients.’ The subject was continued in ‘A Further Account of the Rise and Progress of Astronomy among the Ancients, in three Letters to Martin Folkes, Esq.’ (Oxford, 1748), treating severally of the Astronomy of the Chaldeans, of the Constellations in the Book of Job, and of the Mythological Astronomy of the Ancients. The drift of his arguments was to show that exact astronomy was a product of Greek genius, beginning with Thales, and owed little either to Egypt or Babylon.
His essay on ‘The Use of Astronomy in History and Chronology, exemplified in an Inquiry into the Fall of the Stone into the Ægospotamos, said to have been foretold by Anaxagoras’ (London, 1764), served as a further preparation for the work by which he is chiefly remembered. ‘The History of Astronomy, with its Application to Geography, History, and Chronology, occasionally exemplified by the Globes’ (London, 1767, 4to), received a distinctive value from the ample stores of Greek and Oriental erudition displayed in it. Designed chiefly for the use of students, demonstration accompanied narrative, the purpose of discovery being thus illustrated as well as its origin related. An ‘Account of the Arabian Astronomy,’ extracted from its pages, was included in the first volume of the ‘Asiatic Miscellany,’ printed at Calcutta in 1785.
Costard died at Twickenham, on 10 Jan. 1782, aged 71, in such poverty that the expenses of his funeral were defrayed by a subscription among his parishioners (Monthly Review, 1787, lxxvi. 419). By his particular desire he was buried, without monument or inscription to mark his grave, in Twickenham Churchyard. His library, oriental manuscripts, and philosophical instruments were sold by auction in March 1782.
Besides the works already mentioned, he wrote: 1. ‘Some Observations tending to illustrate the Book of Job …’ Oxford, 1747. 2. ‘Two Dissertations (i.) containing an Enquiry into the Meaning of the Word Kesitah, mentioned in Job xlii. 11; (ii.) on the Signification of the Word Hermes,’ Oxford, 1750, criticised the same year in a tract from an unknown hand, entitled ‘Marginal Animadversions,’ &c. 3. ‘Dissertationes duæ Critico-Sacræ: quarum prima explicatur
