improvement of steam-engines. Swiss yarns have been kept out of continental markets in the interests of home spinning. Now fancy cotton goods, laces and trimmings are the leading specialities of the Swiss textile workers. About half the Swiss spindles are in the canton of Zürich, between a quarter and a third in Glarus, about the same in St Gall and 9% in Aargau. Figures show that the average size of the Swiss mill is small. The average spindles to a mill were 22,000, and very few mills held more than 50,000 spindles. Some 9000 of the power-looms are in Zürich, some 4500 in Glarus and 4000 in St Gall. Wald in the south-east of the canton of Zürich is an important centre of the muslin manufacture.
Austria.—Austria contains about 4,200,000 spindles and more yarn is consumed than it produces, as on balance there is an excess of imports of yarn. Bohemia, lower Austria, Tirol and Vorarlberg account for the mass of Austrian spinning. The following details relating to these districts recently are of interest:—
| Mills. | Spindles. | Average spindles to a mill. | |
| Bohemia | 82 | 1,870,000 | 22,800 |
| Lower Austria | 23 | 460,000 | 20,000 |
| Tirol and Vorarlberg | 20 | 435,000 | 21,700 |
Reichenberg and the surrounding district is the chief manufacturing place: here are more than 80,000 looms, nearly a half of which are hand-looms.
Italy.—Recent industrial growth in Italy is remarkable: statistics of spindles since 1870 are as follows, but the percentage of error is probably high:—
| 1870 | 500,000 |
| 1888 | 900,000 |
| 1898 | 2,100,000 |
| 1909 | 4,000,000 |
The distribution of spindles is roughly as follows:—
| Lombardy | 1,850,000 |
| Piedmont | 1,000,000 |
| Venetia | 550,000 |
| Campania | 250,000 |
| Liguria | 250,000 |
| Tuscany | 100,000 |
The distribution of spindles and power-looms in the chief manufacturing towns in Italy is shown in the following table:—
| Spindles. | Spindles. | ||
| Turin | 470,000 | Genoa | 210,000 |
| Bergamo | 450,000 | Salerno | 150,000 |
| Como | 250,000 | Brescia | 310,000 |
| Milan | 660,000 | Naples | 100,000 |
| Novara | 410,000 | Udine | 240,000 |
| Power- | Power- | ||
| Looms. | Looms. | ||
| Milan | 40,000 | Pisa | 2,500 |
| Turin | 22,000 | Como | 6,000 |
| Novara | 13,000 | Bergamo | 13,000 |
| Genoa | 6,000 | Udine | 3,500 |
The district between Milan and Lago Maggiore contains numerous villages devoted to the cotton industry. Many of the factories in the province of Bergamo are situated in the Valle Seriana, which is endowed with abundant water-power. In this district coarse and medium yarns and grey cloth are the chief products. In the province of Milan there are several small towns, notably Gallarate, Busto Arsizio and Monza, in which the manufacture of coloured and fancy goods is extensively carried on. The finest spinning in Italy is done in Turin. The coarsest spinning is done in Venetia.
The Netherlands.—In 1805 the cotton industry was reintroduced into the Netherlands from England in its factory form. Seventeen mules bearing 16,000 spindles are said to have been smuggled across the channel, while forty Englishmen were enticed over to work them, in spite of English legal prohibitions. Liévin Bauwens was the prime mover of the achievement. Expansion rapidly followed, and in 1892 Belgian spindles numbered nearly a million. Since then a decline has set in. Ghent, with about 600,000 spindles, is the only really important place: no other place has as many as 50,000. Holland possesses about 417,000 spindles: the leading district is Twente and the leading town Enschede; Twente contains also about 20,000 power-looms. Rotterdam is the chief cotton port; Amsterdam, always a far-away second, has lost place still further of late.
Spain and Portugal.—The greatness of Spain in the cotton industry lies buried in the remote past, but of late she has awakened somewhat, with the result that her spindles now number about 1,853,000. Catalonia is the chief province where the industry is carried on, and Barcelona surpasses all other centres. Portugal possesses nearly half a million spindles (the bulk in Lisbon and Oporto), many of which have appeared since 1894.
The Rest of Europe.—Of Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Greece and Macedonia no special mention need be made, nor of other parts where the cotton industry may just exist. It may be mentioned here that among the scattered rural populations of many parts of the continent, even in such advanced countries as France and Germany, hand-looms are still to be found in large numbers.
India.—The hand-cotton-industry has been carried on in India since the earliest times, and for many years English fabrics were protected against the all-cottons of India. Soon after the introduction of spinning by rollers, English all-cottons began to rival the Indian in quality as well as in cost. A large export trade to India has grown up, but Indian hand-loom weavers still ply their craft. In 1851 power-spinning was started, and by 1876 there were in India 1,000,000 spindles. Since then they have nearly reached six millions and importations of yarn have been significantly affected. The growth of Indian power-spinning, which is almost entirely of the ring variety, was attributed by some to the depreciation of the rupee after 1873, but the fall in the value of the rupee was stopped in 1893 and the competition continued. The real explanation, no doubt, is that at the cost of Indian labour it is found cheaper to import machinery and coal than to export or cease to grow cotton and import yarn. This was the conclusion of the majority report of the committee of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce, which made an inquiry into Bombay and Lancashire spinning in 1888. Besides, as regards Indian exports to China, the remission in 1875 of the 3% export duty on yarns must be borne in mind. The efficiency of labour in India is only a small fraction of that of Lancashire operatives. Recently complaint has been made that Indian mills are being run inhumanely long hours with the same set of labour, and that child-labour is being abused, both legally and illegally—legally as regards children over fourteen who are classed as adults. The working of heavy hours began with the electric lighting of the mills; previously all shut down at sunset largely because of the cost of illumination. The outcry which has been raised is, perhaps, sufficient guarantee that the worst evils will be remedied. Indian spinning, it must be remembered, is still very coarse as a rule, though some fine work is attempted and the average of counts spun is rising. Though there are about a ninth as many spindles in India as in the United Kingdom, there are only about one-fifteenth as many power-looms, 46,400 in all, to which figure they rose between 1891 and 1904 from 24,700. The reason for the paucity of power-looms is probably two-fold, (1) the low cost of production of Lancashire weavers, and (2) the habit of hand-loom weaving which is fixed in the Indian people. A rapid increase of power-looms is, however, observable. The hand-loom industry is gigantic, particularly in the Madras Presidency and the Central Provinces; in the latter district alone there were estimated to be 150,000 hand-looms in 1883. The following details relating to the Indian cotton industry are supplied officially:—
French India.
| Mills. | 1897–1898. | 1903–1904. |
| Mills (number) | 164 | 204 |
| Capital (thousand £s) | 648 | 1,067 |
| Looms (number) | 36,946 | 46,421 |
| Spindles (thousands) | 4,219 | 5,213 |
| Persons employed (daily average) | 148,753 | 186,271 |
| Yarn produced:— | ||
| Counts (1 to 20 thousand ℔) | 400,384 | 474,509 |
| Counts (above ” ” ” ) | 62,212 | 104,250 |
| Total ℔ | 462,596 | 578,759 |
| Yarn produced:— | ||
| Bombay (thousand ℔) | 324,649 | 414,932 |
| Bengal ” ” | 44,807 | 46,487 |
| Madras ” ” | 32,516 | 28,714 |
| United Provinces (including Ajmere-Merwara) (thousand ℔) | 26,747 | 29,930 |
| Central Provinces (thousand ℔) | 18,334 | 24,549 |
| Punjab ” ” ” | 6,607 | 11,578 |
| Elsewhere ” ” ” | 8,936 | 22,569 |
| Total ℔ | 462,596 | 578,759 |
| Woven Goods:— | ||
| Grey (thousand ℔) | 83,136 | 111,494 |
| Others ” ” | 8,152 | 26,550 |
| Total ℔ | 91,288 | 138,044 |
China.—In China spinning has not met with the same success as India, and power-manufacturing has not yet obtained a sure footing. The ingrained conservatism of the Chinese temperament is no doubt a leading cause. Of the spindles in China—about 600,000 in all—from a half to three-fifths are in Shanghai. The following details
