with regard both to one another and their common origin. His earliest attempt in the General Morphology was succeeded by many others, and his efforts in this direction may perhaps be held to culminate in the paper he read before the fourth International Zoological Congress, held at Cambridge in 1898, when he traced the descent of the human race in twenty-six stages from organisms like the still-existing Monera, simple structureless masses of protoplasm, and the unicellular Protista, through the chimpanzees and the Pithecanthropus erectus, of which a few fossil bones were discovered in Java in 1894, and which he held to be undoubtedly an intermediate form connecting primitive man with the anthropoid apes.
Not content with the study of the doctrine of evolution in its zoological aspects, Haeckel also applied it to some of the oldest problems of philosophy and religion. What he termed the integration of his views on these subjects he published under the title of Die Welträtsel (1899), which in 1901 appeared in English as The Riddle of the Universe. In this book, adopting an uncompromising monistic attitude, he asserted the essential unity of organic and inorganic nature. According to his “carbon-theory,” which has been far from achieving general acceptance, the chemico-physical properties of carbon in its complex albuminoid compounds are the sole and the mechanical cause of the specific phenomena of movement which distinguish organic from inorganic substances, and the first development of living protoplasm, as seen in the Monera, arises from such nitrogenous carbon-compounds by a process of spontaneous generation. Psychology he regarded as merely a branch of physiology, and psychical activity as a group of vital phenomena which depend solely on physiological actions and material changes taking place in the protoplasm of the organism in which it is manifested. Every living cell has psychic properties, and the psychic life of multicellular organisms is the sum-total of the psychic functions of the cells of which they are composed. Moreover, just as the highest animals have been evolved from the simplest forms of life, so the highest faculties of the human mind have been evolved from the soul of the brute-beasts, and more remotely from the simple cell-soul of the unicellular Protozoa. As a consequence of these views Haeckel was led to deny the immortality of the soul, the freedom of the will, and the existence of a personal God.
Haeckel’s literary output was enormous, and at the time of the celebration of his sixtieth birthday at Jena in 1894 he had produced 42 works with 13,000 pages, besides numerous scientific memoirs. In addition to the works already mentioned, he wrote Freie Wissenschaft und freie Lehre (1877) in reply to a speech in which Virchow objected to the teaching of the doctrine of evolution in schools, on the ground that it was an unproved hypothesis; Die systematische Phylogenie (1894), which has been pronounced his best book; Anthropogenie (1874, 5th and enlarged edition 1903), dealing with the evolution of man; Über unsere gegenwärtige Kenntnis vom Ursprung des Menschen (1898, translated into English as The Last Link, 1898); Der Kampf um den Entwickelungsgedanken (1905, English version, Last Words on Evolution, 1906); Die Lebenswunder (1904), a supplement to the Riddle of the Universe; books of travel, such as Indische Reisebriefe (1882) and Aus Insulinde (1901), the fruits of journeys to Ceylon and to Java; Kunstformen der Natur (1904), with plates representing beautiful marine animal forms; and Wanderbilder (1905), reproductions of his oil-paintings and water-colour landscapes.
There are biographies by W. Bölsche (Dresden, 1900, translated into English by Joseph McCabe, with additions, London, 1906) and by Breitenbach (Odenkirchen, 1904). See also Walther May, Ernst Haeckel; Versuch einer Chronik seines Lebens und Werkens (Leipzig, 1909).
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HAEMATITE, or Hematite, a mineral consisting of ferric oxide (Fe2O3), named from the Greek word αἷμα “blood,” in allusion to its typical colour, whence it is called also red iron ore. When crystallized, however, haematite often presents a dark colour, even iron-black; but on scratching the surface, the powder of the streak shows the colour of dried blood. Haematite crystallizes in the rhombohedral system, and is isomorphous with corundum (Al2O3). The habit of the crystals may be rhombohedral, pyramidal or tabular, rarely prismatic. In fig. 1 the crystal, from Elba, shows a combination of the fundamental rhombohedron (R), an obtuse rhombohedron (s), and the hexagonal bi-pyramid (n). Fig. 2 is a tabular crystal in which the basal pinacoid (o) predominates. Haematite has no distinct cleavage, but may show, in consequence of a lamellar structure, a tendency to parting along certain planes.
Crystallized haematite, such as that from the iron-mines of Elba, presents a steel-grey or iron-black colour, with a brilliant metallic lustre, sometimes beautifully iridescent. The splendent surface has suggested for this mineral such names as specular iron ore, looking-glass ore, and iron glance (fer oligiste of French writers). The hardness of the crystallized haematite is about 6, and the specific gravity 5·2. The so-called “iron roses” (Eisenrosen) of Switzerland are rosette-like aggregates of hexagonal tabular crystals, from fissures in the gneissose rocks of the Alps. Specular iron ore occurs in the form of brilliant metallic scales on many lavas, as at Vesuvius and Etna, in the Auvergne and the Eifel, and notably in the Island of Ascension, where the mineral forms beautiful tabular crystals. It seems to be a sublimation-product formed in volcanoes by the interaction of the vapour of ferric chloride and steam.
Specular haematite forms a constituent of certain schistose rocks, such as the Brazilian itabirite. In the Marquette district of Michigan (Lake Superior) schistose specular ore occurs in important deposits, associated with a jasper rock, in which the ore alternates with bands of red quartzite. Micaceous iron ore consists of delicate steel-grey scales of specular haematite, unctuous to the touch, used as a lubricant and also as a pigment. It is worked in Devonshire under the name of shining ore. Very thin laminae of haematite, blood-red by transmitted light, occur as microscopic enclosures in certain minerals, such as carnallite and sun-stone, to which they impart colour and lustre.
Much haematite occurs in a compact or massive form, often mammillary, and presenting on fracture a fibrous structure. The reniform masses are known as kidney ore. Such red ore is generally neither so dense nor so hard as the crystals. It often passes into an earthy form, termed soft red ore, and when mixed with more or less clay constitutes red ochre, ruddle or reddle (Ger. Rötel).
The hard haematite is occasionally cut and polished as an ornamental stone, and certain kinds have been made into beads simulating black pearls. It was worked by the Assyrians for their engraved cylinder-seals, and was used by the gnostics for amulets. Some of the native tribes in the Congo basin employ it as a material for axes. The hard fibrous ore of Cumberland is known as pencil ore, and is employed for the burnishers used by bookbinders and others. Santiago de Compostela in Spain furnishes a considerable supply of haematite burnishers.
Haematite is an important ore of iron (q.v.), and is extensively worked in Elba, Spain (Bilbao), Scandinavia, the Lake Superior region and elsewhere. In England valuable deposits occur in the Carboniferous Limestone of west Cumberland (Whitehaven district) and north Lancashire (Ulverston district). The hard ore is siliceous, and fine crystallized specimens occur in association with smoky quartz. The ore is remarkably free from phosphorus, and is consequently valued for the production of pig-iron to be converted into Bessemer steel. (F. W. R.*)
HAEMATOCELE (Gr. αἷμα, blood, and κήλη, tumour), the
medical term for a localized collection of blood in the tunica
vaginalis or cord. It is usually the result of a sudden blow or
severe strain, but may arise from disease. At first it forms a
smooth, fluctuating, opaque swelling, but later becomes hard
and firm. In chronic cases the walls of the tunica vaginalis
