HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1810–1862), German poet, was born on the 7th of June 1810 at Dresden. In 1831 he went to Leipzig to study law, but devoted himself mainly to philosophy and belles lettres. Returning to Dresden in 1834 a small comedy, Das seltsame Frühstück, introduced him to the literary society of the capital, notably to Ludwig Tieck, and from this time he devoted himself entirely to writing. In 1837 he returned to Leipzig, and, coming again to Dresden, from 1851 to 1859 edited the feuilleton of Sächsische konstitutionelle Zeitung, and took the lead in the foundation in 1855 of the Schiller Institute in Dresden. His marriage in 1851 had made him independent, and he bought a small property at Pillnitz, on which, soon after his return from a residence of several years at Nuremberg, he died, on the 23rd of August 1862.
Hammer wrote, besides several comedies, a drama Die Brüder (1856), a number of unimportant romances, and the novel Einkehr und Umkehr (Leipzig, 1856); but his reputation rests upon his epigrammatic and didactic poems. His Schau’ um dich, und schau’ in dich (1851), which made his name, has passed through more than thirty editions. It was followed by Zu allen guten Stunden (1854), Fester Grund (1857), Auf stillen Wegen (1859), and Lerne, liebe, lebe (1862). Besides these he wrote a book of Turkish songs, Unter dem Halbmond (Leipzig, 1860), and rhymed versions of the psalms (1861), and compiled the popular religious anthology Leben und Heimat in Gott, of which a 14th edition was published in 1900.
See C. G. E. Am Ende, Julius Hammer (Nuremberg, 1872).
HAMMER, an implement consisting of a shaft or handle with
head fixed transversely to it. The head, usually of metal, has
one flat face, the other may be shaped to serve various purposes,
e.g. with a claw, a pick, &c. The implement is used for breaking,
beating, driving nails, rivets, &c., and the word is applied to
heavy masses of metal moved by machinery, and used for similar
purposes. (See Tool.) “Hammer” is a word common to
Teutonic languages. It appears in the same form in German
and Danish, and in Dutch as hamer, in Swedish as hammare.
The ultimate origin is unknown. It has been connected with
the root seen in the Greek κάμπτειν, to bend; the word would
mean, therefore, something crooked or bent. A more illuminating
suggestion connects the word with the Slavonic kamy, a stone,
cf. Russian kamen, and ultimately with Sanskrit acman, a
pointed stone, a thunderbolt. The legend of Thor’s hammer,
the thunderbolt, and the probability of the primitive hammer
being a stone, adds plausibility to this derivation. The word
is applied to many objects resembling a hammer in shape or
function. Thus the “striker” in a clock, or in a bell, when it
is sounded by an independent lever and not by the swinging of
the “tongue,” is called a “hammer”; similarly, in the “action”
of a pianoforte the word is used of a wooden shank with felt-covered
head attached to a key, the striking of which throws
the “hammer” against the strings. In the mechanism of a
fire-arm, the “hammer” is that part which by its impact on
the cap or primer explodes the charge. (See Gun.) The hammer,
more usually known by its French name of martel de fer, was a
medieval hand-weapon. With a long shaft it was used by
infantry, especially when acting against mounted troops. With
a short handle and usually made altogether of metal, it was
also used by horse-soldiers. The martel had one part of the head
with a blunted face, the other pointed, but occasionally both
sides were pointed. There are 16th century examples in which
a hand-gun forms the handle. The name of “hammer,” in
Latin malleus, has been frequently applied to men, and also to
books, with reference to destructive power. Thus on the tomb
of Edward I. in Westminster Abbey is inscribed his name of
Scotorum Malleus, the “Hammer of the Scots.” The title of
“Hammer of Heretics,” Malleus Haereticorum, has been given
to St Augustine and to Johann Faber, whose tract against
Luther is also known by the name. Thomas Cromwell was styled
Malleus Monachorum. The famous text-book of procedure in
cases of witchcraft, published by Sprenger and Krämer in 1489,
was called Hexenhammer or Malleus Maleficarum (see Witchcraft).
The origin of the word “hammer-cloth,” an ornamental cloth covering the box-seat on a state-coach, has been often explained from the hammer and other tools carried in the box-seat by the coachman for repairs, &c. The New English Dictionary points out that while the word occurs as early as 1465, the use of a box-seat is not known before the 17th century. Other suggestions are that it is a corruption of “hamper-cloth,” or of “hammock-cloth,” which is used in this sense, probably owing to a mistake. Neither of these supposed corruptions helps very much. Skeat connects the word with a Dutch word hemel, meaning a canopy. In the name of the bird, the yellow-hammer, the latter part should be “ammer.” This appears in the German name, Emmerling, and the word probably means the “chirper,” cf. the Ger. jammern, to wail, lament.
HAMMERBEAM ROOF, in architecture, the name given to a
Gothic open timber roof, of which the finest example is that over
Westminster Hall (1395–1399). In order to give greater height
in the centre, the ordinary tie beam is cut through, and the
portions remaining, known as hammerbeams, are supported by
curved braces from the wall; in Westminster Hall, in order to
give greater strength to the framing, a large arched piece of
timber is carried across the hall, rising from the bottom of the
wall piece to the centre of the collar beam, the latter being also
supported by curved braces rising from the end of the hammerbeam.
The span of Westminster Hall is 68 ft. 4 in., and the
opening between the ends of the hammerbeams 25 ft. 6 in. The
height from the paving of the hall to the hammerbeam is 40 ft.,
and to the underside of the collar beam 63 ft. 6 in., so that an
additional height in the centre of 23 ft. 6 in. has been gained.
Other important examples of hammerbeam roofs exist over the
halls of Hampton Court and Eltham palaces, and there are
numerous examples of smaller dimensions in churches throughout
England and particularly in the eastern counties. The ends
of the hammerbeams are usually decorated with winged angels
holding shields; the curved braces and beams are richly moulded,
and the spandrils in the larger examples filled in with tracery,
as in Westminster Hall. Sometimes, but rarely, the collar
beam is similarly treated, or cut through and supported by
additional curved braces, as in the hall of the Middle Temple,
London.
HAMMERFEST, the most northern town in Europe. Pop.
(1900) 2300. It is situated on an island (Kvalö) off the N.W.
coast of Norway, in Finmarken amt (county), in 70° 40′ 11″ N.,
the latitude being that of the extreme north of Alaska. Its
position affords the best illustration of the warm climatic
influence of the north-eastward Atlantic drift, the mean annual
temperature being 36° F. (January 31°, July 57°). Hammerfest
is 674 m. by sea N.E. of Trondhjem, and 78 S.W. from the North
Cape. The character of this coast differs from the southern,
the islands being fewer and larger, and of table shape. The
narrow strait Strömmen separates Kvalö from the larger Seiland,
whose snow-covered hills with several glaciers rise above 3500 ft.,
while an insular rampart of mountains, Sorö, protects the strait
and harbour from the open sea. The town is timber-built and
modern; and the Protestant church, town-hall, and schools
were all rebuilt after fire in 1890. There is also a Roman Catholic
church. The sun does not set at Hammerfest from the 13th of
May to the 29th of July. This is the busy season of the townsfolk.
Vessels set out to the fisheries, as far as Spitsbergen and
the Kara Sea; and trade is brisk, not only Norwegian and
Danish but British, German and particularly Russian vessels
engaging in it. Cod-liver oil and salted fish are exported with
some reindeer-skins, fox-skins and eiderdown; and coal and salt
for curing are imported. In the spring the great herds of tame
reindeer are driven out to swim Strömmen and graze in the
summer pastures of Seiland; towards winter they are called
home again. From the 18th of November to the 23rd of January
the sun is not seen, and the enforced quiet of winter prevails.
Electric light was introduced in the town in 1891. On the
Fuglenaes or Birds’ Cape, which protects the harbour on the
north, there stands a column with an inscription in Norse and
Latin, stating that Hammerfest was one of the stations of the
