in älterer Zeit (1891); Kempt, Convivial Caledonia (1893); F. W.
Hackwood, Inns, Ales and Drinking Customs of Old England (1909);
Jelf and Hurst, The Law of Innkeepers (1904). English and Roman
law are compared in Pymar’s Law of Innkeepers (1892). For Scots
law, see Bell’s Principles. An American treatise is S. H. Wandell,
Law of Inns, Hotels and Boarding Houses (1888). (F. Wa.)
INNERLEITHEN, a police burgh and health resort of Peeblesshire,
Scotland, on Leithen Water, near its junction with the
Tweed, 612 m. S.E. of Peebles by the North British railway.
Pop. (1901) 2181. In olden times it seems to have been known
as Hornehuntersland, and to have been mentioned as early as
1159, when a son of Malcolm IV. (the Maiden) was drowned in
a pool of the Tweed, close to Leithenfoot. Its chief industry
is the manufacture of tweeds and fine yarns, which, together with
the fame of its medicinal springs, brought the burgh into prominence
towards the end of the 18th century. The spa, alleged to
be the St Ronan’s well of Scott’s novel of that name, has a
pump-room, baths, &c. The saline waters are useful in minor cases
of dyspepsia and liver complaints. The town is flanked on the
W. by the hill fort of Caerlee (400 ft. long) and on the E. by that
of the Pirn (350 ft. long). Farther E., close to the village of
Walkerburn, are Purvis Hill terraces, a remarkable series of
earthen banks, from 50 ft. to more than 100 ft. wide, and with
a length varying up to 900 ft., the origin and purpose of which
are unknown. Traquair House, or Palace, on the right bank
of the Tweed, is believed to be the oldest inhabited house in
Scotland, the most ancient portion dating from the 10th century,
and including a remnant of the castle. It was largely added to
by Sir John Stewart, first earl of Traquair (d. 1659) and is a
good example of the Scottish Baronial mansion with high-pitched
roof and turreted angles. To the west of the house was the arbour
which formed the “bush aboon Traquair” of the songs by
Robert Crawford (d. 1733) and John Campbell Shairp, its site
being indicated by a few birch trees. James Nicol (1769–1819),
the poet, was minister of Traquair, and his son James Nicol
(1810–1879), the geologist and professor of natural history in
Aberdeen University, was born in the manse.
INNESS, GEORGE (1825–1894), American landscape painter,
was born near Newburgh, N.Y., on the 1st of May 1825. Before
he was five years of age his parents had moved to New York
and afterwards to Newark, N.J., in which latter city his boyhood
was passed. He would not “take education” at the town
academy, nor was he a success as a greengrocer’s boy. He had
a strong bent towards art, and his parents finally placed him with
a drawing-master named Barker. At sixteen he went to New
York to study engraving, but soon returned to Newark, where
he continued sketching and painting after his own initiative.
In 1843 he was again in New York, and is said to have passed
a month in Gignoux’s studio. But he was too impetuous, too
independent in thought, to accept teaching; and, besides, the
knowledge of his teachers must have been limited. Practically
he was self-taught, and always remained a student. In 1851
he went to Europe, and in Italy got his first glimpse of real art.
He was there two years, and imbibed some traditions of the
classic landscape. In 1854 he went to France, and there studied
the Barbizon painters, whom he greatly admired, especially
Daubigny and Rousseau. After his return to America he opened
a studio in New York, then went to Medfield, Mass., where he
resided for five years. A pastoral landscape near this town
inspired the characteristic painting “The Medfield Meadows.”
Again he went abroad and spent six years in Europe. He came
back to New York in 1876, and lived there, or near there, until
the year of his death, which took place at Bridge of Allan on the
3rd of August 1894 while he was travelling in Scotland. He was
a National Academician, a member of the Society of American
Artists, and had received many honours at home and abroad.
He was married twice, his son, George Inness (b. 1854), being also
a painter. Inness was emphatically a man of temperament, of
moods, enthusiasms, convictions. He was fond of speculation
and experiment in metaphysics and religion, as in poetry and art.
Swedenborgianism, symbolism, socialism, appealed to him as
they might to a mystic or an idealist. He aspired to the perfect
unities, and was impatient of structural foundations. This was
his attitude towards painting. He sought the sentiment, the
light, air, and colour of nature, but was put out by nature’s
forms. How to subordinate form without causing weakness
was his problem, as it was Corot’s. His early education gave
him no great technical facility, so that he never was satisfied
with his achievement. He worked over his pictures incessantly,
retouching with paint, pencil, coal, ink—anything that would
give the desired effect—yet never content with them. In his
latter days it was almost impossible to get a picture away from
him, and after his death his studio was found to be full of experimental
canvases. He was a very uneven painter, and his
experiments were not always successful. His was an original—a
distinctly American—mind in art. Most of his American
subjects were taken from New York state, New Jersey and
New England. His point of view was his own. At his best he
was often excellent in poetic sentiment, and superb in light,
air and colour. He had several styles: at first he was somewhat
grandiloquent in Roman scenes, but sombre in colour; then
under French influence his brush grew looser, as in the “Grey
Lowering Day”; finally he broke out in full colour and light,
as in the “Niagara” and the last “Delaware Water-Gap.”
Some of his pictures are in American museums, but most of
them are in private hands. (J. C. Van D.)
INNOCENT (Innocentius), the name of thirteen popes and one anti-pope.
Innocent I., pope from 402 to 417, was the son of Pope Anastasius I. It was during his papacy that the siege of Rome by Alaric (408) took place, when, according to a doubtful anecdote of Zosimus, the ravages of plague and famine were so frightful, and help seemed so far off, that papal permission was granted to sacrifice and pray to the heathen deities; the pope was, however, absent from Rome on a mission to Honorius at Ravenna at the time of the sack in 410. He lost no opportunity of maintaining and extending the authority of the Roman see as the ultimate resort for the settlement of all disputes; and his still extant communications to Victricius of Rouen, Exuperius of Toulouse, Alexander of Antioch and others, as well as his action on the appeal made to him by Chrysostom against Theophilus of Alexandria, show that opportunities of the kind were numerous and varied. He took a decided view on the Pelagian controversy, confirming the decisions of the synod of the province of proconsular Africa held in Carthage in 416, which had been sent to him. He wrote in the same year in a similar sense to the fathers of the Numidian synod of Mileve who, Augustine being one of their number, had addressed him. Among his letters are one to Jerome and another to John, bishop of Jerusalem, regarding annoyances to which the first named had been subjected by the Pelagians at Bethlehem. He died on the 12th of March 417, and in the Roman Church is commemorated as a confessor along with Saints Nazarius, Celsus and Victor, martyrs, on the 28th of July. His successor was Zosimus.
Innocent II. (Gregorio Paparesci dei Guidoni), pope from 1130 to 1143, was originally a Benedictine monk. His ability, pure life and political connexions raised him rapidly to power. Made cardinal deacon of Sant Angelo in Pescheria by Paschal II. he was employed in various diplomatic missions. Calixtus II. appointed him one of the ambassadors who made peace with the Empire and drew up the Concordat of Worms (1122), and in the following year, with his later enemy Cardinal Peter Pierleoni, he was papal legate in France. On the 13th of February 1130 Honorius II. died, and on that night a minority of the Sacred College elected Paparesci, who took the name of Innocent II. After a hasty consecration he was forced to take refuge with a friendly noble by the faction of Pierleoni, who was elected pope under the name of Anacletus II. by a majority of the cardinals. Declaring that the cardinals had been intimidated, Innocent refused to recognize their choice; by June, however, he was obliged to flee to France. Here his title was recognized by a synod called by Bernard of Clairvaux at Étampes. Similar action was taken in Germany by the synod of Würzburg. In January 1131 Innocent held a personal interview with King Henry I. of England at Chartres, and in March, at Liége, with
