Paris, 1901, Le Droit romain, le droit des gens et le collège des docteurs
en droit civil (Brussels, 1910); Marquis de Olivart, Trattato y notas
de derecho internacional publico (2 vols., 1887, 4th ed., 1903); Luigi
Olivi, Di alcune odierne tendenze del diritto internazionale (Venice,
1907); Onezimo, Discurso sobre la historia del derecho internacional
(Buenos Aires, 1872); Oppenheim, System des Völkerrechts (Frankfort,
1845); L. Oppenheim, International Law, vol. i. “Peace,”
vol. ii. “War and Neutrality” (London, 1905–1906); International
Incidents for Discussion in Conversation Classes (Cambridge, 1909;
solutions are not given); Gerechtigkeit und Gesetz (Basel, 1895);
Ortolan, Règles internationales et diplomatie de la mer (4th ed., Paris,
1864); Paiva, Elementos de direito des gentes (Coimbra, 1864);
Pando, Elementos de derecho internacional (Madrid, 1843, 2nd ed.,
1852); Pardessus, Us. et coutumes de mer (Paris, 1847); Paroldo,
Saggio di codificazione del diritto internazionale (Turin, 1851);
Perels, Das internationale Seerecht der Gegenwart (Berlin, 1882–1903;
transl. Arendt, Manuel de droit maritime international (Paris, 1884);
Perez-Gomar, Curso de derecho de gentes (Montevideo, 1864–1866);
Pertille, Elementi di diritto internazionale nel seculo XIX. (Naples
1877), Trattato di diritto internazionale (1881); Sir R. Phillimore,
Commentaries upon International Law (4 vols., 3rd ed., London,
1879–1889); Coleman Phillipson, Effect of War on Contracts (London,
1909), Studies in International Law (London, 1908); Robert Piédelièvre,
Précis de droit international public (2 vols., 1891–1895);
Pierantoni, Storia del diritto internazionale nel seculo XIX. (Naples,
1877), Trattado di diritto internazionale (1881–1887); Sir F. T.
Piggott, Nationality, including Naturalization and English Law on
the High Seas and beyond the Realm (2 vols., London, 1907), Exterritoriality,
Law relating to Consular Jurisdiction and to Residence
in Oriental Countries (Hongkong and London, 1907); Pillet,
Recherches sur les droits fondamentaux des états dans l’ordre des
rapports internationaux (Paris, 1899); Pinheiro-Ferreira, Droit
public interne et externe (Paris, 1830); Sir Frederick Pollock, “The
Monroe Doctrine” (Nineteenth Century, 1902); Polson, Principles of
the Law of Nations (London, 1848); J. N. Pomeroy, International
Law in Time of Peace, ed. by Theo. D. Woolsey (New York, 1886):
Pradier-Fodéré, La Question de l’Alabama et le droit des gens (Paris,
1872), Traité de droit international public européen et américain
(7 vols., Paris, 1885–1897); Quaritsch, Compendium der europäischen
Völkerrechts (Berlin, 1873); Carman F. Randolph, The Law and
Policy of Annexation with special reference to the Philippines together
with Observations on the Status of Cuba (London, New York and
Bombay, 1901), “Notes on the Foreign Policy of the United States
suggested by the War with Spain” (New York, 1898, pamphlet),
W. F. Reddaway, The Monroe Doctrine (Cambridge, 1898); Reddie,
Inquiries in International Law (London, 1842); Maritime International
Law (Edinburgh, 1844–1845), Emil Reich, Foundations
of Modern Europe (London, 1904); Renault, Introduction à l’étude
du droit international (Paris, 1879); Riquelme, Elementos de derecho
publico internacional (Madrid, 1849); A. Rivier, Principes du droit
des gens (2 vols., Paris, 1896); Saalfeld, Grundriss eines Systems des
europäischen Völkerrechts (Göttingen, 1809); C. Salomon, L’Occupation
des territoires sans maître, étude de droit international (Paris,
1889); Sanchez, Elementos de derecho internacional publico (Madrid,
1866); Eugene Schuyler, American Diplomacy and Furtherance of
Commerce (New York, 1886); James Brown Scott, Cases on International
Law (Boston, 1902), The Hague Peace Conference of 1899
and 1907 (2 vols., Baltimore, 1909); R. F. Seijas, El Derecho internacional
hispano-americano, publico y privado (6 vols., Caracas,
1884); Senior, Law of Nations, &c. (London, 1865); Sheldon Amos,
Lectures on International Law (London, 1874); Sierra, Lecciones de
derecho maritime internacional (Mexico, 1854); F. E. Smith, International
Law (London, 1900, “Temple Primers” series), International
Law as interpreted during the Russo-Japanese War (in collaboration
with N. W. Sibley; London, 2nd ed., 1907); Stephen, International
Law and International Relations (London, 1884); Ellery C. Stowell,
Consular Cases and Opinions from the Decisions of the English and
American Courts and the Opinions of the Attorneys-General (Washington,
D.C., 1909); Sakuyé Takahashi, Cases on International Law
during the Chino-Japanese War (Cambridge, 1900), International Law
applied to the Russo-Japanese War with the Decisions of the Japanese
Prize Courts (London, 1908); H. L. Strisower, “Die Donaufrage” Zeitschrift
für das privat. und öffentliche Recht der Gegenwart (Vienna, 1884);
Hannis Taylor, Treatise on International Public Law (Chicago, 1901);
Tetens, Droits réciproques des puissances belligérantes et des puissances
neutres sur mer. Principes du droit de guerre en général (Copenhagen,
1805); Tétot, Répertoire des traités de paix, de commerce, d’alliance,
&c., conventions et autres actes conclus entre toutes les puissances
du globe principalement depuis la paix de Westphalie jusqu’ à nos
jours (Partie chronologique, 1866, partie alphabétique, 1873,
supplément, 1895); Alberto Torres, Vers la paix. Études sur
l’établissement de la paix générale et sur l’organisation de l’ordre
international (Rio de Janeiro, 1909); Heinrich Triepel, Völkerrecht
und Landesrecht (Leipzig, 1899); Sir Travers Twiss, The Law of
Nations considered as Independent Communities (2 vols., 2nd ed.,
London, 1875–1892); von Ullmann, Völkerrecht (1895; 2nd ed.
1908); Verraes, Les Lois de la guerre et la neutralité (Brussels, 1906);
T. A. Walker, The Science of International Law (London, 1893),
Manual of Public International Law (London, 1895), History of the
Law of Nations (London, 1899); John Westlake, Chapters on the
Principles of International Law (Cambridge, 1894), International
Law, vol. i. “Peace” (Cambridge, 1904), vol. ii. “War” (1907);
Francis Wharton, Digest of the International Law of the United States,
taken from documents issued by Presidents and Secretaries of State,
from decisions of Federal Courts and Opinions of Attorneys-General
(Washington, 1886, 3 vols., official), The Revolutionary Diplomatic
Correspondence of the United States (6 vols., Washington, 1889,
official); H. Wheaton, History of the Law of Nations in Europe and
America from the earliest times to the Treaty of Washington, 1842
(New York, 1845); Elements of International Law (1st ed., 1836; edit.
Lawrence, 1855; edit. Dana, 1866; edit. Boyd, London, 1880; edit.
Abdy, Cambridge, 1888; 3rd Eng. ed. by Sir Sherston Baker, 1893;
4th Eng. ed. by Atlay, 1904); Wildman, Institutes of International
Law (London, 1849); Theodore D. Woolsey, Introduction to the
Study of International Law (6th ed., New York, 1891); Spencer
Walpole, Foreign Relations (“English Citizen” series, London, 1882);
André Weiss, “Crimes et délits politiques dans les rapports de
l’Autriche et de la Russie” (Journal de droit international privé,
Paris, 1883). (T. Ba.)
INTERNATIONAL LAW (PRIVATE). There is in every
territory the law of the land, or territorial law, by which the
courts decide all cases that include no circumstances connected
with any foreign territory. Often, however, such a circumstance
suggests the question whether justice does not require that the
law of some other territory shall be applied. Thus the Gretna
Green marriages, by which English minors escaped the necessity
of banns or the consent of parents or guardians, suggested the
question, which was answered in the affirmative, whether even
in England their validity ought not to be tried by the law of
Scotland, where they were celebrated. Often, again, the question
is suggested whether justice does not require that the courts
of law should allow some effect to foreign legal proceedings,
such as a judgment obtained or litigation pending abroad.
Such questions as these are answered by private international
law, which, since both laws and legal proceedings are emanations
of public authority, may be defined as the department of legal
science which is concerned with the effect to be given in the
courts of law of any territory to the public authority of another
territory. The extradition of criminals is also an effect given
to foreign public authority, but rather by the government which
surrenders the criminal (see Extradition) than by the courts
of law, whose only function is to check the surrender so far as
the domestic legislation allows them to do so. If private international
law were defined as the effect to be given by any mode
in one territory to the public authority of another, extradition
would be included in it, as is often done; but since the principles
governing extradition have little to do with those applicable
to the other cases, it seems best to treat it as a separate department
of law, as is generally done in England.
Comity of Nations.—In the 17th century the Dutch jurists Paul and John Voet and Huber brought forward a view which has since been largely adopted in England and the United States, namely, that the effect given by courts of law to foreign public authority is only due to the comity of nations, but for which every possible question before them would have to be decided by the law of the land. Comity, in that phrase, may only be intended to express the truth that foreign public authority has no inherent effect, without denying that the effect which domestic public authority allows to it is dictated by justice. But the limitations implied in the popular meaning of comity have sometimes been made the ground for deciding questions of private international law in the manner supposed to be most for the interest of litigants belonging to the territory; the phrase is consequently reprobated by most European continental writers, and had better be dropped. The justice on which private international law is founded acknowledges no interest but the general one of intercourse between persons sharing a common civilization in different countries. This interest, as manifesting itself in the domain of law, it seeks to satisfy and it is therefore a true legal justice, rightly classed under law, droit, recht, diritto, derecho and other corresponding terms.
Of the two words which, together with law, make up the title of our subject, private is justified by the fact that its application is between litigants in courts of law, and not between governments except so far as they may be such litigants. International (although interterritorial would be better) is justified by the