The motto of his life was the advice he gave to some school children in Scotland—“Fear God, and work hard.”
See, besides his own narratives and W. G. Blaikie’s Life (1880), the publications of the London Missionary Society from 1840, the Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, the despatches to the Foreign Office sent home by Livingstone during his last two expeditions, and Stanley’s Autobiography (1909) and How I Found Livingstone (1872). (J. S. K.)
LIVINGSTONE MOUNTAINS, a band of highlands in German
East Africa, forming the eastern border of the rift-valley of
Lake Nyasa, at the northern end of the lake. In parts these
highlands, known also under their native name of Kinga, present
rather the character of a plateau than of a true mountain range,
but the latter name may be justified by the fact that they form
a comparatively narrow belt of country, which falls considerably
to the east as well as to the west. The northern end is well
marked in 8° 50′ S. by an escarpment falling to the Ruaha valley,
which is regarded as a north-eastern branch of the main rift-valley.
Southwards the Livingstone range terminates in the
deep valley of the Ruhuhu in 10° 30′ S., the first decided break
in the highlands that is reached from the north, on the east
coast of Nyasa. Geologically the range is formed on the side
of the lake by a zone of gneiss running in a series of ridges and
valleys generally parallel to its axis. The ridge nearest the lake
(which in Mount Jamimbi or Chamembe, 9° 41′ S., rises to an
absolute height of 7870 ft., or 6200 ft. above Nyasa) falls almost
sheer to the water, the same steep slope being continued beneath
the surface. Towards the south the range appears to have a
width of some 20 m. only, but northwards it widens out to about
40 m., though broken here by the depression, drained towards
the Ruaha, of Buanyi, on the south side of which is the highest
known summit of the range (9600 ft.). North and east of
Buanyi, as in the eastern half of the range generally, table-topped
mountains occur, composed above of horizontally bedded
quartzites, sandstones and conglomerates. The uplands are
generally clothed in rich grass, forest occurring principally in
the hollows, while the slopes towards the lake are covered with
poor scrub. Native settlements are scattered over the whole
range, and German mission stations have been established at
Bulongwa and Mtandala, a little north of the north end of
Nyasa. The climate is here healthy, and night frosts occur in
the cold season. European crops are raised with success. At
the foot of the mountains on Lake Nyasa are the ports of Wiedhafen,
at the mouth of the Ruhuhu, and Old Langenburg, at
the north-east corner of the lake. (E. He.)
LIVIUS ANDRONĪCUS (c. 284–204 B.C.), the founder of Roman
epic poetry and drama. His name, in which the Greek Ἀνδρόνικος
is combined with the gentile name of one of the great Roman
houses, while indicative of his own position as a manumitted
slave, is also significant of the influences by which Roman
literature was fostered, viz. the culture of men who were
either Greeks or “semi-Graeci” by birth and education, and
the protection and favour bestowed upon them by the more
enlightened members of the Roman aristocracy. He is supposed
to have been a native of Tarentum, and to have been brought,
while still a boy, after the capture of that town in 272, as a
slave to Rome. He lived in the household of a member of the
gens Livia, probably M. Livius Salinator. He determined the
course which Roman literature followed for more than a century
after his time. The imitation of Greek comedy, tragedy and
epic poetry, which produced great results in the hands of Naevius,
Plautus, Ennius and their successors, received its first impulse
from him. To judge, however, from the insignificant remains
of his writings, and from the opinions of Cicero and Horace,
he can have had no pretension either to original genius or to
artistic accomplishment. His real claim to distinction was
that he was the first great schoolmaster of the Roman people.
We learn from Suetonius that, like Ennius after him, he obtained
his living by teaching Greek and Latin; and it was probably
as a school-book, rather than as a work of literary pretension,
that his translation of the Odyssey into Latin Saturnian
verse was executed. This work was still used in schools in the
time of Horace (Epp. ii. 1., 69), and, although faultily executed,
satisfied a real want by introducing the Romans to a knowledge
of Greek. Such knowledge became essential to men in a high
position as a means of intercourse with Greeks, while Greek
literature stimulated the minds of leading Romans. Moreover,
southern Italy and Sicily afforded many opportunities for witnessing
representations of Greek comedies and tragedies. The
Romans and Italians had an indigenous drama of their own,
known by the name of Satura, which prepared them for the
reception of the more regular Greek drama. The distinction
between this Satura and the plays of Euripides or Menander
was that it had no regular plot. This the Latin drama first
received from Livius Andronicus; but it did so at the cost of
its originality. In 240, the year after the end of the first Punic
War, he produced at the ludi Romani a translation of a Greek
play (it is uncertain whether a comedy or tragedy or both),
and this representation marks the beginning of Roman literature
(Livy vii. 2). Livius himself took part in his plays, and in
order to spare his voice he introduced the custom of having the
solos (cantica) sung by a boy, while he himself represented the
action of the song by dumb show. In his translation he discarded
the native Saturnian metre, and adopted the iambic, trochaic
and cretic metres, to which Latin more easily adapted itself
than either to the hexameter or to the lyrical measures of a
later time. He continued to produce plays for more than thirty
years after this time. The titles of his tragedies—Achilles,
Aegisthus, Equus Trojanus, Hermione, Tereus—are all suggestive
of subjects which were treated by the later tragic poets of Rome.
In the year 207, when he must have been of a great age, he was
appointed to compose a hymn of thanksgiving, sung by maidens,
for the victory of the Metaurus and an intercessory hymn to
the Aventine Juno. As a further tribute of national recognition
the “college” or “gild” of poets and actors was granted a
place of meeting in the temple of Minerva on the Aventine.
See fragments in L. Müller, Livi Andronici et Cn. Naevi Fabularum Reliquiae (1885); also J. Wordsworth, Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin (1874); Mommsen, Hist. of Rome, bk. iii. ch. 14.
LIVNO, a town of Bosnia, situated on the eastern side of the
fertile plain of Livno, at the foot of Mount Krug (6581 ft.).
Pop. about 5000. The Dalmatian border is 7 m. W. Livno
had a trade in grain, live-stock and silver filigree-work up to
1904, when a fire swept away more than 500 of the old Turkish
houses, together with the Roman citadel. Remains prove that
Livno occupies the site of a Roman settlement, the name of
which is uncertain. The Roman Catholic convent of Gurici
is 6 m. S.
LIVONIA, or Livland (Russian, Liflandia), one of the three
Baltic provinces of Russia, bounded W. by the Gulf of Riga,
N. by Esthonia, E. by the governments of St Petersburg, Pskov
and Vitebsk, and S. by Courland. A group of islands (1110
sq. m.) at the entrance of the Gulf of Riga, of which Oesel,
Mohn, Runo and Paternoster are the largest, belong to this
government. It covers an area of 18,160 sq. m., but of this the
part of Lake Peipus which belongs to it occupies 1090. Its
surface is diversified by several plateaus, those of Haanhof
and of the Livonian Aa having an average elevation of 400 to
700 ft., while several summits reach 800 to 1000 ft. or more.
The edges of the plateaus are gapped by deep valleys; the hilly
tract between the Dvina and its tributary the Livonian Aa has
received, from its picturesque narrow valleys, thick forests and
numerous lakes, the name of “Livonian Switzerland.” The
plateau of Odenpäh, drained by tributaries of the Embach
river, which flows for 93 m. from Lake Virz-yärvi into Lake
Peipus, occupies an area of 2830 sq. m., and has an average
elevation of 500 ft. More than a thousand lakes are scattered
over Livonia, of which that of Virz-yärvi, having a surface of
106 sq. m. (115 ft. above sea-level), is the largest. Marshes
and peat-bogs occupy one-tenth of the province. Of the numerous
rivers, the Dvina, which flows for 90 m. along its frontier, the
Pernau, Salis, Livonian Aa and Embach are navigable.
The Silurian formation which covers Esthonia, appears in the northern part of Livonia, the remainder of the province consisting of Devonian strata. The whole is overlaid with
