the greatest depth is only 175 fathoms. The depth increases so rapidly towards the east that soundings exceeding 500 fathoms occur off Gibraltar. The Balearic Basin, between Spain and the rise bearing Corsica and Sardinia, has a maximum depth of 1742 fathoms, and the Tyrrhenian Basin between that rise, Italy and Sicily deepens to 2040 fathoms. The larger Eastern Mediterranean Basin stretches eastward from Sicily with large tracts more than 2000 fathoms below the surface, and the greatest depth ascertained during the detailed researches of the Austrian expedition on board the “Pola” was 2046 fathoms in 35° 44.8′ N., 21° 46.8′ E. The Adriatic Sea though very shallow in the north deepens southward to about 900 fathoms, and the Aegean Sea has a maximum depth of 1230 fathoms north of Crete. The Black Sea, connected with the Mediterranean by long and narrow channels, is occupied in the north by an extensive shelf on which lies the extremely shallow Gulf of Azov; but the greater part of the sea consists of a deep basin, the central part of which is an almost flat expanse at a uniform depth of 1220 fathoms.
The smaller enclosed seas are for the most part very shallow. The Persian Gulf nowhere exceeds 50 fathoms, the southern part of Hudson Bay does not exceed 100 fathoms except at one spot, though in the less-known fjords of the northern part depths up to 200 fathoms have been reported. The Baltic Sea exceeds 50 fathoms in few places except the broad central portion, though small caldron-like depressions here and there may sink below 200 fathoms. The Red Sea on the other hand, though shut off from the Indian Ocean by shallows of the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb with little more than 100 fathoms, sinks to a very considerable depth in its central trough, which reaches 1209 fathoms in 20° N.
The fringing seas as a rule show little variety of submarine relief. The Bass Sea (Bass Strait), Irish Sea and North Sea lie on the continental shelf. In the North Sea the depth of 100 fathoms is only exceeded to any extent in the Norwegian gully, which has a maximum depth of 383 fathoms in the Skagerrack. Most of the other seas of this class are formed on a common plan. Towards the continent there is a broad shelf, and just before the chain of islands separating them from the ocean runs a narrow and deep trough. In the Bering Sea the trough north of Buldir in the Aleutian Islands sinks to 2237 fathoms, and in the Sea of Okhotsk, north-west of the Kuriles, to 1859 fathoms. Similar conditions prevail in the East China Sea and the Andaman Sea. The Sea of japan has a wide shelf only in the north, the central part forms a broad basin with depths of 1650 fathoms. The Laurentian Sea (Gulf of St Lawrence) has a narrow branching gully running between wide shelves, in which a depth of 312 fathoms is found south of Anticosti.
The area, general depth and total volume of the oceans and principal seas have been recalculated by Krümmel, and the accompanying table presents these figures.
Mean Depths of Oceans and Seas.
| Name. | Depth. Fathoms. |
Area. | Volume. | ||
| sq. km. | sq. st. m. | cb. km. | cb. st. m. | ||
| Atlantic Ocean | 2110 | 81,657,800 | 31,529,390 | 314,821,680 | 75,533,900 |
| Indian Ocean | 2148 | 73,441,960 | 28,357,150 | 288,527,610 | 69,225,200 |
| Pacific Ocean | 2240 | 165,715,490 | 63,985,370 | 678,837,190 | 162,870,600 |
| I. Oceans | 2186 | 320,815,250 | 123,871,910 | 1,282,186,480 | 307,629,700 |
| Arctic Sea | 640 | 14,352,340 | 5,541,630 | 16,794,140 | 4,029,400 |
| Malay Sea | 595 | 8,125,060 | 3,137,210 | 8,848,110 | 2,122,900 |
| Central American Sea | 1143 | 4,584,570 | 1,770,170 | 9,579,490 | 2,298,400 |
| Mediterranean Sea | 782 | 2,967,570 | 1,145,830 | 4,249,020 | 1,019,400 |
| Intracontinental Seas | 718 | 30,029,540 | 11,595,840 | 39,470,760 | 9,470,100 |
| Baltic Sea | 30 | 406,720 | 157,040 | 22,360 | 5,360 |
| Hudson Bay | 70 | 1,222,610 | 472,070 | 156,690 | 37,590 |
| Red Sea | 267 | 458,480 | 177,030 | 223,810 | 53,700 |
| Persian Gulf | 14 | 232,850 | 89,910 | 5,910 | 1,420 |
| Smaller Enclosed Seas | 96 | 2,320,660 | 896,050 | 408,770 | 98,070 |
| II. Enclosed Seas | 674 | 32,350,200 | 12,490,890 | 39,879,530 | 9,568,170 |
| Bering Sea | 790 | 2,274,800 | 878,340 | 3,286,230 | 788,500 |
| Okhotsk Sea | 694 | 1,507,610 | 582,110 | 1,895,100 | 454,700 |
| Japan Sea | 837 | 1,043,820 | 403,040 | 1,597,040 | 383,200 |
| East China Sea | 97 | 1,242,480 | 479,740 | 219,820 | 52,700 |
| Andaman Sea | 426 | 790,550 | 305,240 | 615,910 | 147,770 |
| Californian Gulf | 540 | 166,790 | 64,400 | 164,590 | 39,490 |
| North Sea | 51 | 571,910 | 220,820 | 53,730 | 12,890 |
| Irish Sea | 34 | 213,380 | 82,390 | 13,320 | 3,200 |
| Laurentian Sea | 70 | 219,300 | 84,670 | 28,100 | 6,740 |
| Bass Sea | 39 | 83,170 | 32,110 | 6,020 | 1,440 |
| III. Fringing Seas | 531 | 8,113,810 | 3,132,860 | 7,879,860 | 1,890,630 |
| Seas (Enclosed and Fringing) | 645 | 40,464,010 | 15,623,750 | 47,759,390 | 11,458,800 |
| Hydrosphere | 2013 | 361,279,160 | 139,495,660 | 1,329,945,870 | 319,087,500 |
Oceanic Deposits.—It has long been known that the deposits which carpet the floor of the ocean differ in different places, and coasting sailors have been accustomed from time immemorial to use the lead not only to ascertain the depth of the water but also to obtain samples of the bottom, the appearance of which is often characteristic of the locality. In depths down to 100 fathoms the old-fashioned hand-lead, hollow below and “armed” with tallow, suffices to bring up a sample large enough to be recognizable. Captain Phipps in 1773 secured samples of soft blue clay in this manner from a depth of 683 fathoms, but as a rule when sounding in great depths the sample is washed off the tallow before it can be brought on board. Various devices have consequently been attached to leads intended to catch and hold the material when soft enough to be penetrated. One of the most effective early forms was the snapper or “deep-sea clamm” of Sir John Ross, a pair of powerful spring jaws held apart by an arrangement which when released on striking the bottom allowed the jaws to close, biting out and holding securely a substantial portion of the ground. A simpler form of collector, now almost universally used, is a plain brass tube which is driven into the bottom of the sea by the weight of the sounding lead, and in which the deposit may be retained by a valve or other contrivance, though in many cases friction alone suffices to hold the punched-out core. Larger quantities of deposit may be conveniently collected by means of the dredge, which can be worked in any depth and brings up large stones, concretionary nodules or fossils, of the existence of which a sounding-tube could give no indication.
The voyage of the “Challenger” supplied for the first time the nucleus of a collection of deep-sea deposits sufficient to serve as the basis for comprehensive classification and mapping. The “Challenger” collections supplemented by those of other expeditions and of many telegraph and surveying-ships were studied in detail by Sir John Murray and Professor A. Renard, whose monograph,[1] published in 1891, laid the foundations and
- ↑ “Challenger” Reports, “Deep Sea Deposits.”
