mouth of the Yare to Happisburgh the shore is skirted by sandbanks. Thence for 20 m. it is formed of cliffs consisting of clay and masses of embedded rocks, the average height being about 50 ft., although in some cases an altitude of 200 ft. is reached. These cliffs are succeeded by a low shingly or sandy coast stretching as far as St Edmund’s Point. The shores of the Wash are formed of mudbanks, which are left dry at low water. West of Lynn a considerable extent of land has been reclaimed from the sea in modern times, and farther south an old Roman embankment stretches into Lincolnshire. At various points off the coast there are submarine forests, especially in Brancaster Bay and in the neighbourhood of Cromer and Happisburgh. Fossilized remains of large mammals are sometimes dragged up by the nets of fishermen, and mammoth tusks measuring from 6 to 9 ft. have been found at Knole Sand off Happisburgh. The fine sandy beaches and healthy climate have contributed to the growth of such popular watering-places as Cromer, Yarmouth and Hunstanton, while Mundesley and Wells-next-the-Sea are lesser resorts.
Geology.—The prevailing rock formation in Norfolk is the Chalk, which occupies a broad tract in the central and western portions of the county and underlies the Tertiary deposits in the eastern part, the general dip of the rocks being towards that direction. Pliocene beds predominate in the eastern third of the county; while a narrow belt of Lower Cretaceous and Jurassic rocks lies along the western border. Oxford Clay and Corallian beds have been proved by boring at Lynn, but the oldest formation to appear at the surface is the Kimeridge Clay, which stretches along the coast of the Wash from Hunstanton to King’s Lynn and south to Downham, where it has been dug for bricks and tiles. The Lower Greensand, which forms the picturesque escarpment overlooking the Fen-land and the Wash, is represented in its upper part by the brown, iron-stained sandstone, the Carstone (up to 40 ft.), locally known as the “Gingerbread stone,” which is quarried at Snettisham and elsewhere as a building stone. Below the Carstone are the Snettisham Clay beds, dug for brick-making at that village and at Dersingham and Heacham; these pass southwards into sandstones and ironstones. The lowest division of the Greensand, the Sandringham beds, highly-coloured sands and sandstones, are exposed at Sandringham Warren, Downham Market and Grimston Common. Overlying the Lower Greensand is the Gault Clay which extends from Shouldham northwards to Dersingham, where it begins to change in character and finally passes into the Red Chalk (4 ft.), so conspicuous in the cliffs at Hunstanton. In the same cliffs the Lower Chalk is exposed resting on the Red Chalk (which does not belong to the Chalk proper but the Gault); it is a hard grey or white limestone; at Marham and other places it is quarried for building and for lime. The Middle Chalk (about 300 ft.), with flints in the upper part and occasional marl beds, is exposed at Docking, Hillington and Methwold. The Upper Chalk (about 800 ft.) is much softer, with many flints, including the peculiar forms known as “paramoudras”; it has been largely exploited for lime and whiting, and the flints have been worked from prehistoric times. Dressed flints are still used for facing walls in churches and other buildings. At Trimingham occurs the highest horizon of the Chalk known in England. Eocene strata, Reading Beds (46 ft.) and London Clay (310 ft.) have been proved to lie beneath younger deposits at Yarmouth. Pliocene deposits, sands, gravels and clays are exposed along the coast from Weybourne and Cromer to Happisburg and in the river valleys over most of the eastern part of the country. The lower subdivision, the Norwich Crag Series (25-100 ft.), exhibits numerous local peculiarities to which distinctive names have been applied, as the “Fluvio-Marine beds” of Bramerton and Thorpe, the “mammaliferous crag,” the “Weybourne Crag” and the “Chillesford Clays,” &c. The upper subdivision, the Cromer Forest-Bed (10-30 ft.), contains the bones of the mammoth, rhinoceros, giant beaver, sabre-toothed tiger and many others, as well as the transported stumps of trees. Next in order come the glacial clays, sands and gravels, which cover and obscure so much of the older stratified rocks of the county and hence greatly influence the scenery. There is a lower “till” with boulders and an upper chalky boulder clay, sometimes with sands and gravels between; glacial gravels overlie the clays in large sheets as at Norwich, Mousehold Heath, Dereham, Fakenham. The drift is thicker in the east than in the west—very interesting exposures occur on the cliffs about Cromer. Later valley gravels occupy some of the stream courses, and among the more recent deposits are the Fen beds and blown sands.
Climate and Agriculture.—On account of the exposed position of the coast to east and north-east winds, the climate, especially in winter and early spring, is much colder than in the adjacent counties. The air is, however, generally dry, and unhealthy fogs are not common, except in the marshy districts. The cynd is a characteristic mist which sometimes rolls up like smoke from the sea over the eastern parts. Norfolk contains a greater variety of soil than any other county in England. In the north and west the soil is generally chalky; towards the south-east it is a light sand, assuming occasionally the form of blowing sand, but elsewhere capable of cultivation and of average fertility. In the centre and east the prevailing soil is loam, chiefly light and workable, but sometimes composed of stiff chalky boulder clay. Alluvial clays and loams occur on the borders of Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire, and stretch along the river valleys. The marsh lands along the coast are subject to inundation, but afford capital pasturage. Farming is in an advanced condition, and, by means of draining, subsoil ploughing, &c., excellent crops are raised. The farms are for the most part large and the farm buildings superior. About four-fifths of the total area is under cultivation. Of this area corn crops occupy some two-fifths and consist mainly of wheat and barley, but in the production of oats also Norfolk is one of the first counties in England. As much attention is paid to the grazing of cattle and to the rearing and fattening of sheep, turnips and swedes are extensively grown. Large numbers of lean cattle, principally Irish shorthorns, are brought into the county mainly for winter grazing. The old Norfolk polled stock is recognized as a distinct breed. Good pasture lands are found in many districts of the county, especially along the river-beds and near the fens. A large acreage is under beans and a fair quantity of small fruit is grown.
Other Industries.—At an early period Norfolk was one of the principal seats of the cloth trade in England, worsted deriving its name from having been first manufactured at Worstead. The weaving of silk and wool is still carried on at Norwich and also shawl weaving, although the staple trade of the town is now boots and shoes. Silk is also manufactured at Yarmouth, Wymondham and North Walsham. Flour-mills are numerous all over the county, and there are agricultural implement works at Norwich, Lynn, Thetford, East Harling, North Walsham, Walsingham, and East Dereham. Lime-burning, brick-making, tanning, malting and brewing are carried on in various districts. There are extensive mustard and starch works at Norwich. One of the chief hindrances to commercial progress is the dangerous nature of the sea-coast, and the lack of harbours. A large trade, however, is carried on at Yarmouth. The other principal port is Lynn, and there is a small trade at Cromer and Wells.
Railway communication is provided principally by the Great Eastern railway, the principal lines of which are those from London and Ipswich to Norwich and Yarmouth, from Ely to Norwich and Yarmouth, Ely to Lynn, Lynn to Swaffham and Dereham, Norwich to Dereham and Wells and Norwich to Cromer. There are numerous branch lines. The Midland & Great Northern joint line, from Lynn, serves Cromer, Norwich, North Walsham and Yarmouth. The eastern rivers afford water communication with the port of Yarmouth and the Great and Little Ouse, with many of the drainage cuts which are navigable, with Lynn.
Population and Administration.—The area of the ancient county is 1,308,439 acres, with a population in 1891 of 454,516, and in 1901 of 460,120. The area of the administrative county is 1,314,612. The county contains 33 hundreds. The municipal boroughs are—King’s Lynn (pop. 20,288); Norwich, a city and county borough and the county town (111,733); Thetford (4613); and Yarmouth, properly Great Yarmouth, a county borough (51,316). The urban districts are Cromer (3781), Diss (3745), Downham Market (2472), East Dereham (5545), Hunstanton (1893), North Walsham (3981), Sheringham (2359), Swaffham (3371), Walsoken (3250), Wells-next-the-Sea (2494). Among other towns may be mentioned Fakenham (2907), Holt (1844), Wymondham (4733). The county is in the south-eastern circuit, and assizes are held at Norwich. There are two courts of quarter sessions, and 25 petty sessional divisions. Each of the four municipal boroughs has a separate commission of the peace and a separate court of quarter sessions. The total number of civil parishes is 700. Norfolk is mainly in the diocese of Norwich, with small parts in those of Ely and Lincoln; it contains 607 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in part. For parliamentary purposes the county is divided into six divisions (North-Western, South-Western, Northern, Eastern, Mid, and Southern), and also includes the parliamentary
