though the extreme forms of these varieties are very dissimilar, innumerable modifications are found between them; hence it is more convenient to regard them as at most sub-species of Q. Robur. The British oak is one of the largest trees of the genus, though old specimens are often more remarkable for the great size of the trunk and main boughs than for very lofty growth. The spreading branches have a tendency to assume a tortuous form, owing to the central shoots becoming abortive, and the growth thus being continued laterally, causing a zigzag development, more exaggerated in old trees and those standing in
From Kotschy, op. cit. Plate XXVII.
Fig. 2.—Q. pedunculata.
exposed situations; to this peculiarity the picturesque aspect of ancient oaks is largely due. When standing in dense woods the trees are rather straight and formal in early growth, especially the sessile-fruited kinds, and the gnarled character traditionally assigned to the oak applies chiefly to its advanced age. The broad deeply-sinuated leaves with blunt rounded lobes are of a peculiar yellowish colour when the buds unfold in May, but assume a more decided green towards midsummer, and eventually become rather dark in tint; they do not change to their brown autumnal hue until late in October, and on brushwood and saplings the withered foliage is often retained until the spring. The catkins appear soon after the young leaves, usually in England towards the end of May; the acorns, oblong in form, are in shallow cups with short, scarcely projecting scales; the fruit is shed the first autumn, often before the foliage changes.
Vast oak forests still covered the greater part of England and central Europe in the earlier historic period; and, though they have been gradually cleared in the progress of cultivation, oak is yet the prevailing tree in most of the woods of France, Germany and southern Russia, while in England the coppices and the few fragments of natural forest yet left are mainly composed of this species. The pedunculated variety is most abundant in the southern and midland counties, the sessile fruited kinds in the northern parts and in Wales, especially in upland districts; the straighter growth and abundant acorns of this sub-specie shave led to its extensive introduction into plantations. The name of "durmast" oak, originally given to a dark-fruited variety of Q. sessiliflora in the New Forest, has been adopted by foresters as a general term for this kind of oak; it seems to be the most prevalent form in Germany and in the south of Europe. Many of the ancient oaks that remain in England may date from Saxon times, and some perhaps from an earlier period; the growth of trees after the trunk has become hollow is extremely slow, and the age of such venerable giants only matter of vague surmise. The celebrated Newland oak in Gloucestershire, known for centuries as "the great oak," was by the latest measurement 47½ ft. in girth at 5 ft. from the ground. The Cowthorpe oak, standing (a ruin) near Wetherby in Yorkshire, at the same height measures 38½ ft., and seems to have been of no smaller dimensions when described by Evelyn two centuries ago; like most of the giant oaks of Britain, it is of the pedunculate variety.
The wood of the British oak, when grown in perfection, is the most valuable produced in temperate climates. The heartwood varies in colour from dark brown to pale yellowish-brown; hard, close-grained, and little liable to split accidentally, it is, for a hard wood, easy to work. Under water it excels most woods in durability, and none stand better alternate exposure to drought and moisture, while under cover it is nearly indestructible as long as dry-rot is prevented by free admission of air. Its weight varies from 48 to about 5 5lb the cubic foot, but in very hard slowly-grown trunks sometimes approaches 60 lb. The sap-wood is lighter and much more perishable, but is of value for many purposes of rural economy. The relative qualities of the two varieties have been the frequent subject of debate, the balance of practical testimony seeming to establish the superiority of Q. pedunculala as far as durability in water is concerned; but when grown under favourable circumstances the sessile oak is certainly equally lasting if kept dry. The wood of the durmast oak is commonly heavier and of a darker colour, hence the other is sometimes called by woodmen the white oak, and in France is known as the "chéne blanc." The oak of Britain is still in demand for the construction of merchant shipping, though teak has become in some measure its substitute, and foreign oak of various quality and origin largely takes its place. Its great abundance of curved trunks and boughs rendered the oak peculiarly valuable to the shipwright when the process of bending timber artificially was less understood; the curved pieces are still useful for knees. The younger oaks are employed by the carpenter, wheelwright, wagon-builder and for innumerable purposes by the country artisan. The most durable of fences are those formed of small oaks, split lengthwise by the wedge into thin boards. The finely-grained heart-wood is sought by the cabinetmaker for the manufacture
From Kotschy, op. cit. Plate XXXII.
Fig. 3.—Q. sessiliflora.
of furniture, and high prices are often given for the gnarled and knotted portions of slowly-grown trees, to be sawn into veneers. Oak was formerly largely used by wood-carvers, and is still in some demand for those artists, being harder and more durable than lime and other woods that yield more readily to the sculptor's tool. Oak was thus applied at a very early date; the shrine of Edward the Confessor, still existing in the abbey at Westminster, sound after the lapse of, 800 years, is of dark-coloured oak-wood. The wood, of unknown age, found submerged in peat-bogs, and of a black hue, is largely used in decorative art under the name of "bog-oak."
The oak grows most luxuriantly on deep strong clays, calcareous marl or stiff loam, but will flourish in nearly any deep well-drained soil, excepting peat or loose sand; in marshy or moist places the tree may grow well for a time, but the timber is rarely sound; on hard rocky ground and exposed hillsides the growth is extremely slow and the trees small, but the wood
