the revision of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty on the subject of the Panama Canal. In 1893 the British minister at Washington was raised to the rank of ambassador, and Sir Julian Pauncefote became the doyen of the diplomatic corps. He died on the 26th of May 1902 at Washington. He had been made Baron Pauncefote of Preston in 1899 in recognition of his services at the Peace Conference at the Hague, and he was a member of the Court of Arbitration which resulted from the conference.
PAUPERISM (Lat. pauper, poor), a term meaning generally
the state of being poor, poverty; but in English usage particularly
the condition of being a “pauper,” i.e. in receipt of relief
administered under the poor law. In this sense the word is
to be distinguished from “poverty.” A person to be relieved
under the poor law must be a destitute person, and the moment
he has been relieved he becomes a pauper, and as such incurs
certain civil disabilities. Statistics dealing with the state of
pauperism in this sense convey not the amount of destitution
actually prevalent, but the particulars of people in receipt of
poor law relief.
PAUSANIAS (5th century B.C.), Spartan regent and commander, of the Agiad family, son of Cleombrotus and nephew of
Leonidas, the hero of Thermopylae. Upon the death of the
latter in 480 B.C. his son Pleistarchus became king, but as he was
still a minor the regency devolved first on Leonidas's brother
Cleombrotus, and after his death in 479 on Pausanias. He first
distinguished himself as commander of the combined Greek
forces in the victory of Plataea. In 478 he was appointed
admiral of the Greek fleet, and succeeded in reducing the greater
Dart of Cyprus, the strategic key of the Levant, and in capturing
Byzantium from the Persians, thus securing the command of
the Bosporus, and of the route by which Darius had invaded
Europe. But he entered into treacherous negotiations with the
Persian king, and his adoption of Oriental dress and customs,
and his haughty behaviour to the Greeks under his command,
roused their resentment and suspicion (see Delian League).
Pausanias was recalled by the ephors and, though acquitted
on the main charge of Medism, was not again sent out in any
oiScial position. He returned to Byzantium, nevertheless,
in a ship of Hermione and seized that town and, apparently,
Sestos also. He was dislodged from both by the Athenians,
to whom the allies had transferred from Sparta the naval
hegemony. For some time he lived at Cleonae in the Troad,
carrying on negotiations with Xerxes, but was again recalled
to Sparta, where he incited the helots to revolt. When his
schemes were almost matured, the evidence of a confidential
slave led to the discovery of his plot by the ephors. He fled to
the sanctuary of Athena Chalcioecus on the Spartan Acropolis:
there he was immured, and when starvation and exposure had
all but done their work he was dragged out to die. This crime
against religion the state subsequently expiated by the burial
of his body at the spot where he died and the dedication of two
bronze statues. To commemorate Leonidas and Pausanias a
yearly festival was held, at which speeches were made extolling
their victories; this was still celebrated when the geographer
Pausanias visited Sparta more than six centuries later (Paus,
iii. 14). The date of the regent's death probably falls in 471 or
470, though some assign it to a later date on a very doubtful
statement of Justin (ix. 1) that Pausanias held Byzantium for
seven years.
See Herodotus v. 32, ix. 10–88; Thucydides i. 94–96, 128–134, ii. 71, 72, iii. 58; Diodorus Siculus xi. 30–47, 54; Cornelius Nepos, Pausanias; Justin ii. 15, ix. I, 3; Pausanias iii. 4, 14, 17; Polyaenus viii. 51; Aristodemus ii., iv., vi.-viii.; Athenaeus xii. 535E, 536A; Plutarch, Cimon 6, Themistocles 23, Aristides 11–20, 23; N. Hanske, Ueber den Königsregenten Pausanias (Leipzig, 1873). (M. N. T.)
PAUSANIAS, Greek traveller and geographer of the 2nd
century A.D., lived in the times of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and
Marcus Aurelius. He was probably a native of Lydia, and was
possibly born at Magnesia ad Sipylum; he was certainly interested
in Pergamum and familiar with the western coast of Asia
Minor; but his travels extended far beyond the limits of Ionia.
Before visiting Greece he had been to Antioch, Joppa and
Jerusalem,[1] and to the banks of the river Jordan. In Egypt he had seen the pyramids and had heard the music of the vocal Memnon, while at the temple of Ammon he had been shown the hymn once sent to that shrine by Pindar. He had taken note of the fortifications of Rhodes and Byzantium, had visited Thessaly, and had gazed on the rivulet of " blue water " beside the pass of Thermopylae. In Macedonia he had almost certainly viewed the traditional tomb of Orpheus, while in Epirus he was familiar with the oracular oak of Dodona, and with the streams of Acheron and Cocytus. Crossing over to Italy, he had seen something of the cities of Campania, and of the wonders of Rome.
His Description of Greece (περιήγησις τῆς Ἑλλάδος) takes the form of a tour in the Peloponnesus and in part of northern Greece. It is divided into ten books: (i.) Attica and Megara; (ii.) Argolis, including Mycenae, Tiryns and Epidaurus; (iii.) Laconia; (iv.) Messenia; (v.) and (vi.) Elis, including Olympia; (vii.) Achaea; (viii.) Arcadia; (ix.) Boeotia, and (x.) Phocis, including Delphi.
Book i. was written after Herodes Atticus had built the Athenian Stadium (A.D. c. 143), but before he had built the Odeum (c. 160–161). There is reason to believe that this book was published some years before the rest. The statement in book v. (i, 2), that 217 years had elapsed since the restoration of Corinth (44 B.C.), shows that Pausanias was engaged on his account of Elis in the year A.D. 174, during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. He repeatedly refers to buildings erected by Hadrian, who died in A.D. 138. He had lived in that emperor's time, but had not actually seen that emperor's favourite, AntinoUs, who died about 130. He mentions the wars of Antoninus Pius against the Moors, and of Marcus Aurelius (in and after A.D. 166) against the Germans (viii. 43). The latest event which he records is the incursion of the robber-horde of the Costobocs (A.D. c. 176; X. 34, s). Book i. having been published before 160, and books vi.-x. after 174, the composition of the whole must have extended over more than fourteen years.
The work has no formal preface or conclusion. It suddenly begins with the promontory of Sunium, the first point in Attica that would be seen by the voyager from the shores of Asia Minor, and it ends abruptly with an anecdote of a blind man of Naupactus. The author's general aim may be inferred from his saying at the close of his account of Athens and Attica: “Such (in my opinion) are the most famous of the Athenian traditions and sights; from the mass of materials I have aimed from the outset at selecting the really notable” (i. 39, 3). It 's possibly in the hope of giving variety and interest to the topographical details of Athens that the author intersperses them with lengthy historical disquisitions; but the result is that the modern reader is tempted to omit the “history” and to hasten on to the “topography,” on which the author is now a primary authority. In the subsequent books he introduces two improvements. His account of each important city begins with a sketch of its history; and, in his subsequent descriptions, he adopts a strictly topographical order. He takes the nearest road from the frontier to the capital; he there makes for the central point, e.g. the market-place, and describes in succession the several streets radiating from that centre. Similarly, in the surrounding district, he follows the principal roads in succession, returning to the capital in each case, until, at the end of the last road, he crosses the frontier for the next district. In the later books he supplies us with a few glimpses into the daily life of the inhabitants. He is constantly describing ceremonial rites or superstitious customs. He frequently introduces narratives from the domain of history and of legend and folk-lore; and it is only
- ↑ The tomb of Helena at Jerusalem, which Pausanias viii. 16, 4–5. compares with the Mausoleum, is mentioned by Josephus, Ant. xx. 4, 3; Bell. jud. v. 2, 2; 3, 3; 4, 2; and Eusebius, H.E. ii. 12, 3. Helen, the daughter of Izates, king of Adiabene, sent large shiploads of provisions to Rome during the great famine in the time of Claudius (A.D. 44–48). Her tomb is identified by universal consent with the so-called " Tombs of the Kings, " half a mile north of the Damascus gate. Cf. Schürer, Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes, 3rd ed., iii. 120–122; view of tomb in Picturesque Palestine, i. 103.
