of sight, having been cut off for long ages from the stimuli (light) essential for these organs, and so brought into an atrophic condition from disuse.
Atrophy may also follow from overwork. Increased work thrown on to a tissue may produce hypertrophy, but, if this excessive function be kept up, atrophy will follow; even the blacksmith's arm breaks down owing to the hypertrophic muscle fibres becoming markedly atrophied.
From these causes a certain shrinkage is liable to occur, more evident in some parts of the body than in others. Thus the brain falls off in bulk, and the muscles become attenuated, and in no muscle is this more notable than in the case of the heart. A tendency to pigmentation also develops in certain tissues of the body, such as the nerve and muscle cells. As a result of these various degeneration's the functions of the body deteriorate, the faculties become blunted, and the muscular energy of the body is below what it was in earlier life, while the secreting glands in certain instances become functionally obsolescent.
Continuous Over-pressure.—The tissues of an animal or plant are all under a certain pressure, caused, in the one case, by the expulsive action of the heart and the restraint of the skin and other elastic tissues, and, in the other case, by the force of the rising sap and the restraint of the periderm or bark. Under this normal amount of pressure they can live and grow. But whenever, from any cause, the degree of pressure which they are naturally intended to withstand is surpassed, they fail to nourish themselves, become granular, die, and, falling to pieces, are absorbed.
Deleterious Surroundings.—There can be little doubt that all unnatural and artificial modes of life tend to deterioration of the powers of resistance of the organism to disease. We see it exemplified in plant life in circumstances which are unnatural to the life of the plant, and the prevalence of certain constitutional tendencies among the inhabitants of crowded cities bears evidence to the same law.
Man, like other animals, was naturally intended to lead an outdoor life. He was originally a hunter and a tiller of the ground, breathing a pure atmosphere, living on a frugal diet, and exercising his muscles. Whenever these conditions are infringed his powers of resistance to disease are lessened, and certain tendencies begin to show themselves, which are generally termed constitutional. Thus the liability to tubercular infection is far commoner in the midst of a depraved population than in one fulfilling the primary laws of nature; rickets is a disease of great cities rather than of rural districts; and syphilis is more disastrous and protracted in its course in the depraved in health than in the robust. Cattle kept within-doors are in a large proportion of cases tubercular, while those leading an outdoor life are much less liable to infection. The improvement which has taken place in the general health of the inhabitants of cities during recent years, concurrent with hygienic legislation, is ample proof of the above assertions. The diminution in the number of deaths from tuberculosis during the last forty to fifty years of the 19th century of itself points in this direction. Every living organism, animal and vegetable, tends to maintain a normal state of health; it is when the natural laws of health are violated that the liability to disease begins to assert itself. If, in these circumstances, the food supply be also insufficient, the combination of influences is sure, in course of time, to bring about a physical deterioration of the race. Certain avocations have a direct and immediate influence in causing diseased states of body. Thus workers in lead suffer from the effects of this substance as a poison, those who work in phosphorus are liable to necrosis of bone and fatty degeneration of the blood vessels and organs, and the many occupations in which dust is inhaled (coal mining, stone-dressing, steel-polishing, &c.; fig. 30, Pl. III.) are fraught with the greatest danger, owing to the destructive influence exerted upon the lungs by the inhaled particles. Among the most dangerous of the last class (the pneumokonioses) is perhaps that in which the dust particles take the form of finely divided freestone, as in stone-dressing and the dry-polishing on the grindstone of steel. The particles in this case set up a form of fibrosis of the lung, which, either of itself or by rendering the organ liable to tubercular infection, is extremely fatal. The abuse of alcohol may also be mentioned here as a factor in the production of disease.
Parasitism.—Of all external agents acting for evil, however, probably vegetable and animal micro-organisms with a pathogenic bent are most to be feared. When we consider that tuberculosis, diphtheria, cholera, tetanus, typhoid fever, anthrax, malaria and a host of other contagious diseases have each been proved to be of parasitical origin, an idea may be conveyed of the range of the subject. The living organism may be regarded as constantly engaged in a warfare with these silent and apparently insignificant messengers of destruction and death, with the result that too often the battle ends in favour of the attacking enemy.
Heredity.—The tendencies to disease are in great part hereditary. They probably express a variation which may have occurred in a far-back ancestor, or in one more recent, and render the individual vulnerable to the attacks of parasitic fungi, or, it may be, become manifest as errors of metabolism. The psychopathic, the tubercular, the rickety, and the gouty constitution may all be transmitted through a line of ascendants, and only require the necessary exciting agents to render them apparent. A distinction must be drawn between the above and diseases, like syphilis and small-pox, in which the contagion of, not the tendency to, the disease is transmitted directly to the foetus in utero. (See Heredity.)
The Cellular Doctrine in Pathology
The cellular pathology is the pathology of to-day; indeed, protoplasm—its vital characteristics under abnormal influences and its decay—will be regarded most likely as the basis of pathology in all time. According to our present knowledge of physiological and pathological processes, we must regard the cell as the ultimate biological unit—a unit of structure and a unit of function; this was first put forward by Schleidenin 1838, and by Schwann in 1839, but we owe to Virchow the full recognition of the fundamental importance of the living cell in all the processes of life, whether in health or disease. When Virchow wrote, in 1850, “every animal presents itself as a sum of vital unities, every one of which manifests all the characteristics of life,” he expressed a doctrine whose sway since then has practically been uninterrupted. The somatic cells represent communities or republics, as it were, which we name organs and tissues, but each cell possesses a certain autonomy and independence of action, and exhibits phenomena which are indicative of vitality.
Still, it must be borne in mind that this alleged autonomy of action is said to be founded upon an erroneous supposition, on the supposition that each cell is structurally, and it may be said functionally, separated from those in its neighbourhood. It is well known that in the vegetable kingdom the protoplasm of one cell frequently overflows into that of cells adjacent—that there is, as it were, a continuous network of protoplasm (idioplasm of Nägeli) prevailing throughout vegetable tissues, rather than an aggregation of isolated units. The same inter-communication prevails between adjacent cells in some animal tissues, and more particularly in those which are pathological, as in the case of the epithelial cells of cancer. Assuming, with Sedgwick and others, this amassed and bound condition of the tissues to be true, it would be necessary to reject the cell-doctrine in pathology altogether, and to regard the living basis of the organism as a continuous substance whose parts are incapable of living independently of the whole. Until, however, further evidence is forthcoming in support of this syncytial theory of structure, it would be unwise to regard it as established sufficiently to constitute a serviceable working hypothesis; hence, for the time being, we must accept the assertion that the cell represents the ultimate tissue-unit. Our present day definition of a cell is a minute portion of living organized substance or protoplasm.
The cells met with in morbid parts which are in a state of active Structure of Pathological Cells. vitality are built up of the same components as those found in normal tissues (Pl. I.).[1] Thus they are provided with a nucleus which is the centre of cell activity; both of the reproductive and chemical (metabolic) processes which occur in the cell protoplasm. The executive centre
- ↑ DESCRIPTION OF PLATE I.
Series of Figures illustrative of Irregular Division of Cells.
Figs. 1 to 6 are from the epithelial cells of a cancer of the mamma. (After Galeotti.)
Figs. 7 to 21 are from a sarcoma. (After Trambusti.)
Fig. 1.—Resting epithelial cell.
