The first Modern Danish grammar is by E. Pontoppidan, 1668, but
Grammatical treatment.
in Latin; the first in Danish is by the famous Peder Syv,
1685. The works of the self-taught J. Højsgaard (e.g.
Accentueret og raisonneret grammatica, 1747) possess great
merit, and are of especial importance as regards accent and
syntax. The earlier part of the 19th century gave us Rask's grammar
(1830). A thoroughly satisfactory Modern Danish grammar does not
exist; the most detailed is that by K. Mikkelsen (1894). The vocabulary
of the 16th and 17th centuries is collected in Kalkar's Ordbog,
mentioned above; that of the 18th and 19th centuries in the voluminous
dictionary of Videnskabernes Selskab (1793-1905), and in C.
Molbech's Dansk Ordbog (2nd ed., 1859); that of our days in B. T.
Dahl's and H. Hammer's Dansk Ordbog for folket (1903 seq.).
As already mentioned, Danish at the Reformation became the language of the literary and educated classes of Norway and Dano-Norwegian. remained so for three hundred years, although it cannot be denied that many Norwegian authors even during this period wrote a language with a distinct Norwegian colour, as for instance the prominent prose-stylist Pcder Claussøn Friis (d. 1614), the popular poet Petter Dass (d. 1708), and, in a certain degree, also the two literary masters of the 18th century, Holberg and Wessel. But it is only since 1814, when Norway gained her independence, that we can clearly perceive the so-called Dano-Norwegian gradually developing as a distinct offshoot of the general Danish language. The first representatives of this new language are the writer of popular life M. Hansen (d. 1842), the poets H. Wergeland (d. 1845) and J. S. C. Welhaven (d. 1873), but above all the tale-writers P. C. Asbjørnsen (d. 1885) and J. Moe (d. 1882). More recently it has been further developed, especially by the great poets Ibsen (d. 1906) and Bjørnson and the novelist Lie; and it has been said, not without reason, to have attained its classical perfection in the works of the first-named author. This language differs from Danish particularly in its vocabulary, having adopted very many Norwegian provincial words (more than 7000), less in its inflections, but to a very great extent in its pronunciation. The most striking differences in this respect are the following: Norwegian p, t, k Form of the language. answer to Danish b, d, g in cases where they are of later date (see above)—as løpe, Danish løbe, to run, liten, D. liden, little, bak, D. bag, back; to Danish k, g before palatal vowels answer Norwegian tj, j; r (point-trill, not back-trill as in Danish) is assimilated in some way with following t(d), l, n, and s into so-called supradental sounds; both the primitive Scandinavian systems of accentuation are still kept separate from a musical point of view, in opposition to the monotonous Danish. There are several other characteristics, nearly all of which are points of correspondence with Swedish.[1] Dano-Norwegian is in our days grammatically and lexically treated, especially by H. Falk and A. Torp (e.g. Etymologisk Ordbog, 1903, 1906).
At the middle of the 19th century, however, far more advanced pretensions were urged to an independent Norwegian language. By the Norwegian-Norwegian. study of the Modern Norwegian dialects and their mother language, Old Norwegian, the eminent philologist J. Aasen (d. 1896) was led to undertake the bold project of constructing, by the study of these two sources, and on the basis of his native dialect (Søndmøre), a Norwegian-Norwegian (“Norsk-Norsk”) language, the so-called “Landsmål.” In 1853 he exhibited a specimen of it, and, thanks to such excellent writers as Aasen himself, the poets O. Vinje and K. Janson, the novelists A. Garborg and J. Tvedt, as well as a zealous propagandise of the society Det Norske Samlag (founded in 1868) there has since arisen a valuable though not very large literature in the “Landsmål.” Since 1892 it is also legally authorized to be, alternatively, used in the church and by teachers of the public schools. But still it is nowhere colloquially used. Its grammatical structure and vocabulary are exhibited in Aasen's Norsk grammatik (1864) and Norsk Ordbog (1873), supplemented by H. Ross's Norsk Ordbog (1895; with supplement, 1902). The local names of Norway are treated in the large work Norske Gaardnavne, by O. Rygh (1897 seq.).
Scandinavian Dialects.—As above remarked, the Scandinavian dialects are not grouped, so far as their relationship is concerned, Dialects. as might be expected judging from the literary languages. Leaving out of account the Icelandic dialects and those of the Faeroes, each of which constitutes separate group, the remainder may be thus classified:—
1. West Norwegian Dialects—spoken on the western coast of Norway between Langesund and Molde.
2. North Scandinavian—the remaining Norwegian and the Swedish dialects of Uppland, Västmanland, Dalarna, Norrland, Finland and Russia.
3. The dialects on the island of Gotland.
4. Middle Swedish—spoken in the rest of Sweden, except the southernmost parts (No. 5).
5. South Scandinavian—spoken in the greater part of Småland and Halland, the whole of Skåne, Blekinge and Denmark, and the Danish-speaking part of Schleswig. This group is distinctly divided mto three smaller groups—the dialects of southern Sweden (with the island of Bornholm), of the Danish islands and of Jutland (and Schleswig).
The study of the Modern Scandinavian dialects[2] has been very unequally prosecuted. Hardly anything has been done towards the investigation of the Icelandic dialects, while those of the Faeroes have been studied chiefly by V. U. Hammershaimb, J. Jakobsen, and A. C. Evensen. The Norwegian dialects have been thoroughly examined, first by Aasen, whose works give a general account of them; then by J. Storm, who has displayed an unwearying activity, especially in the minute investigation of their phonetic constitution, to which Aasen had paid but scant attention; in our own days by H. Ross and A. B. Larsen.[3] For the study of Danish dialects less has been done. Molbech's Dialect-Lexicon of 1841 is very deficient. The Schleswig dialect has been admirably treated of by E. Hagerup (1854). K. J. Lyngby (1858) and others. H. F. Feilberg's great dictionary (1886 seq.) of the dialect of lutland is in every respect an excellent work. A dialect map on a large scale, and containing the whole territory, is (since 1898) being edited by V. Bennike and M. Kristensen. Finally, several dialect monographs by P. K. Thorsen may be mentioned as being especially valuable. A phonetic alphabet for the purpose of dialectal investigations is worked out by O. Jespersen and published in the journal Dania, vol. i. (1890). There is, however, no country in which the dialects have been and are studied with greater zeal and more fruitful results than in Sweden during the last hundred and fifty years. Archbishop E. Benzelius the younger (d. 1743) made collections of dialect words, and on his work is based the dialectical dictionary of Ihre of 1766. An excellent work considering its age is S. Hof's Dialectus Vestrogothica, (1772). The energy and zeal of C. Säve (d. 1876; essays on the dialects of Gotland and Dalarna) inspired these studies with extraordinary animation at the middle of the 19th century; in 1867 J. E. Rietz (d. 1868) published a voluminous dialect dictionary; the number of special essays, too, increased yearly. From 1872 so-called “landsmålsföreningar” (dialect societies) were founded among the students at the universities of Upsala, Lund and Helsingfors (thirteen at Upsala alone) for a systematic and thorough investigation of dialects. We find remarkable progress in scientific method—especially with regard to phonetics—in the constantly increasing literature; special mention may be made of the detailed descriptions of the dialects of Värmland, Gotland and Dalarna by A. Noreen (1877 seq.), A. F. Freudenthal's and H. Vendell's monographs of the Finnish and Esthonian-Swedish dialects, as well as O. F. Hultman's (1894) and B. Hesselman's (1902 seq.) excellent comparative treatment of certain dialect groups. Since 1879 the Swedish dialect societies have published a magazine on a comprehensive plan, De Svenska Landsmålen, edited by J. A. Lundell, who has invented for this purpose an excellent phonetic alphabet (partially based on C. J. Sundevall's work, Om phonetiska bokstäfver, 1855). (A. No.)
SCANDIUM [symbol Sc, atomic weight 44.1 (O=16)], one of
the rare earth metals. It was isolated in 1879 by L. F,. Nilson
and was shown by Cleve to be identical with the ekaboron
predicted by D. Mendeléeff. The separation of scandium from
wolframite (which contains 0.14-0.16% of rare earths) is
given by R. J. Meyer (Zeit. anorg. Chem. 1908, 60, p. 134),
but it seems impossible to obtain a perfectly pure specimen
of the oxide. The salts of scandium are all colourless,
the chloride and bromide corresponding in composition to
Sc2X6⋅12H2O; the fluoride is anhydrous. The sulphate combines
with the alkaline sulphates to form double salts of the
type Sc2(SO4)3⋅3K2SO4. A large number of salts, both of inorganic
and organic acids, have been described by Sir W.
Crookes (Phil. Trans. 1908, 209, A. p. 15); those of the fatty
acids are in most cases more soluble in cold than in hot water.
SCANTLING, measurement or prescribed size, dimensions, particularly used of timber and stone and also of vessels. In regard to timber the scantling is the thickness and breadth, the sectional dimensions; in the case of stone the dimensions of thickness, breadth and length; in shipbuilding the collective dimensions of the various parts. The word is a variation of “scantillon,” a carpenter's or mason's measuring tool, also used of the measurements taken by it, and of a piece of timber of small size cut as a sample. The O. Fr. escantillon, mod. échantillon, is usually, taken to be related to Ital. scandaglio, sounding-line (Lat. scandere, to climb; cf. scansio, the metrical scansion). It was probably influenced by cantel, cantle, a small piece, a corner piece. The English form “scantling” was no
- ↑ See A. Western, “Kurze Darstellung des norwegischen Lautsystems” in Phonetische Studien II.; I. C. Poestion, Lehrbuch der norwegischen Sprache (2. Aufl., 1900).
- ↑ Cf. J. A. Lundell, “Skandinavische Mundarten” (Grundriss der germanischen Philologie; 2. Aufl. 1901).
- ↑ The substance of these researches was presented in a magazine, called Norvegia (1887), which employed an alphabet invented by Storm.
