(1873), who wrote chiefly in Arabic, but deserves mention here
by his services to Syriac grammar and lexicography, and still
more by his translations of Greek philosophical and scientific
works into Syriac[1] and from Syriac into Arabic, becoming in a
sense the founder of a school of translators; and Jacob bar Shakkō,
whose work called the Dialogues treats of grammar, rhetoric,
poetry, logic, philosophy and science.
5. Grammar and Lexicography.—Several of the authors in this department have already been mentioned. The more important, besides Jacob of Edessa and Barhebraeus, are ‘Anānīshō‘ of Ḥēdhaiyabh, Ḥonain ibn Iṣḥāḳ, his pupil Bar ’Alī, Bar Sarōshwai (early 10th century), Bar Bahlūl (middle of 10th century), Elias of Ṭīrhān (†1049), Elias bar Shīnāyā (above), John Bar Zō’bī (beginning of 13th century) and Jacob bar Shakkō.
Apart from the numerous editions of Syriac texts by M. Paul Bedjan, most of which have been cited above, nearly all the texts recently edited are included in one or other of three comprehensive series now running—viz. (1) Patrologia syriaca (Paris, 1894); (2) Corpus scriptorum christianorum orientalium—scriptores syriaci (Paris, 1907); (3) Patrologia orientalis (Paris, 1907).
- (N. M.)
SYRIANUS, a Greek Neoplatonist philosopher, and head of the school at Athens in succession to Plutarch. He is important as the teacher of Proclus, and, like Plutarch and Proclus, as a commentator on Plato and Aristotle. His best-known extant work is a commentary on the Metaphysics of Aristotle. He is said to have written also on the De coelo and the De interpretatione of Aristotle and on Plato's Timaeus. A treatise on the Staseis of Hermogenes was published under his name by Walz in 1833. His views were identical with those of Proclus, who regarded him with great affection and left orders that he should be buried in the same tomb.
SYRINGE (Gr. σῦριγξ, reed, pipe), a hydraulic instrument, based on the principle of the pump, for the drawing up and ejecting of liquids. The ordinary form is that of a glass or metal tube ending in a pointed nozzle and fitted with an airtight piston-rod and handle. The nozzle is inserted in the liquid, which enters the cylinder by atmospheric pressure when the piston-rod is drawn up. On pushing back the piston the fluid is ejected in a jet through the nozzle. In sizes varying from the needle-pointed hypodermic syringe to the abdominal syringe, it is a common surgical implement used for the injection of fluids into the body or for the washing of wounds and cavities. The smaller syringes are made of glass, the larger of metal; the most common medical syringes consist of a length of india-rubber tubing, one end terminating in a nozzle of ivory or other easily cleaned material, in the centre is a bulb or ball which under pressure draws up the liquid through the free end of the tube which is placed in the vessel containing it. There are a very large number of different types of syringe used in surgical practice. A larger syringe of metal, with a fiat perforated nozzle is used as a garden implement for watering plants.
SYRINX (σῦριγξ), the Greek name for the pan-pipes. The principle on which it works is that of the stopped pipe, but it is blown in the same manner as the ancient Egyptian nay or oblique flute. The pipes composing it were stopped at one end, so that the sound waves had to travel twice the length of the pipe, giving out a note nearly an octave lower than that produced by an open pipe of equal length. The breath directed horizontally across the open end, impinged against the sharp inner edge of the pipes, creating the regular series of pulses which generate the sound waves within the tubes. The syrinx consisted of a varying number of reeds, having their open ends or embouchures in a horizontal line and their stopped ends, formed by the knots in the reed, gradually decreasing in length from left to right. Each pipe gave out one note, but by overblowing, i.e. increased pressure of breath and tension of lips, harmonies could be obtained.
The syrinx or pan pipes owes its double name to ancient Greek tradition, ascribing its invention to Pan in connection with a well-known legend of the Arcadian water-nymph “Syrinx.”[2] The exact form of the instrument and the number of pipes (10) at the beginning of the third century B.C. is shown in one of the Idyllia figurata,[3] in which the legend is repeated. The pandean pipes continued in favour with the rustic populations of the West long after the organ evolved from it had eclipsed this humble prototype. The syrinx was in use during the middle ages, and was known in France as frestel or frêtiau, in medieval Latin as fistula panis, and in Germany as Pansflöte or Hirtenpfeife (now Papagenoflöte) . At the beginning of the 19th century a revival of the popularity of this instrument took place, and quartets were played on four sets of pipes of different sizes and pitch. The modern mouth-organ is the representative of the syrinx, although blown by means of a free reed.
SYRUP (O. Fr. ysserop, mod. sirop, Span. xarope, for axarope, Arab. al, the, and sharab, drink; cf. “Sherbet” and “Shrub”), the name given to a thick, viscid liquid, containing much dissolved (generally crystalline) matter, but showing little tendency to deposit crystals. The “syrup” employed for medicinal purposes consists of a concentrated or saturated solution of refined sugar in distilled water. The simple “syrup” of the British Pharmacopoeia is prepared by adding 1000 grams (or 5 ℔) of refined sugar to 500 cubic centimetres (or two pints) of boiling distilled water, heating until it is dissolved and subsequently adding boiling distilled water until the weight of the whole is 1500 grams (or 7½ ℔). The specific gravity of the syrup should be 1.33. Flavoured syrups are made by adding flavouring matter to a simple syrup. For instance, syrupus aromaticus is prepared by adding certain quantities of orange and cinnamon water to simple syrup. Similarly, medicated syrups are prepared by adding medicaments to, or dissolving them in, the simple syrup. Golden syrup is the uncrystallizable fluid drained off in the process of obtaining refined crystallized sugar. Treacle and molasses are syrups obtained in the earlier stages of refining. Technically and scientifically the term syrup is also employed to denote viscid, generally residual, liquids, containing substances other than sugar in solution.
SYRYENIANS (also Sirianian, Syrjenian, Zyrenian, Zirianian, Zyrian and Zirian), a tribe belonging to the Permian division of the eastern Finns. They are said to number about 85,000 on the west side of the Urals in the governments of Perm, Vologda and Archangel, and there are also about 1000 on the Siberian side of the lower Ob. Their headquarters are at Ust-Ishma, at the junction of the Ishma and Pechora. Formerly they spread farther to the west. They are of moderate stature, blond, and grey-eyed, and more energetic and inclined to trade than most of the allied tribes. They were converted to Christianity about 1350 and their language was reduced to writing. They call themselves Komi and are not sharply distinguished from the tribes known as Permian, the languages being mutually intelligible. The archaeological remains in the governments of Perm and Vatyka called Chudish by Russians are probably Syryenian. A grammar of the language was published by Castrén, and linguistic and other notices of the tribe are contained in the Journal de la société finno-ougrienne, especially for 1903. (See Finno-Ugrian.)
SYSTYLE (Gr. σύν, together with, and στῦλος, a column), in architecture, a term meaning having columns rather thickly set—an intercolumniation to which two diameters are assigned.
SYZRAÑ, a town of Russia, in the government of Simbirsk, 156 m. E. of the town of Penza, and a short distance from the Volga. Pop. (1882), 24,500; (1900), 33,046. Syzrañ originated in a fort, erected in 1683, to protect the district from the Tatars and Circassians. Most of its inhabitants are engaged in gardening and tillage. In the large villages of the surrounding district various petty trades are carried on. The town has long been in repute for its tanneries and its manufactures of leather. Several flour-mills and other factories have recently sprung up. Much grain is exported; timber is brought from the upper Volga, and manufactured wares from Nizhniy Novgorod.
SYZYGY (Gr. συζυγία, a yoking together, from σύν, together, and root ζυγ-, yoke), in astronomy, either of the points at which the moon is most nearly in a line with the sun. The moon passes her syzygies, or is in a syzygy, at new and full moon.
