Camelidae and Oreodontidae, with resemblances to the European
Oligocene genus Dichobune (see Artiodactyla). Homaeodon was
an animal of the size of a rabbit, with five toes (of which only
five were functional to each foot) and 44 teeth, of which the molars
are tuberculated (bunodont), with six columns on those of the upper
jaw; the premolars being of a cutting type. It should be added
that this generalized animal is not infrequently classed among the
ancestral pigs, but its cameline affinities are strongly emphasized
by Professor Scott.
Literature.—W. B. Scott, “On the Osteology of Poebrotherium,” Journal of Morphology (1891), vol. v.; “The Osteology of Protoceras” (1895), ibid., vol. xi.; J. L. Wortman, “On the Osteology of Agriochoerus,” Bull. Amer. Museum (1895), vol. vii.; “The Extinct Canielidae of North America” (1898), ibid., vol. x.; W. D. Matthew, “The Skull of Hypisodus” (1901), ibid., vol. xvi. (R. L.*)
TYLOR, EDWARD BURNETT (1832–), English anthropologist, was born at Camberwell, London, on the 2nd of October 1832, the son of Joseph Tylor, a brass founder. Alfred Tylor, the geologist, was an elder brother. His parents were members of the Society of Friends, at one of whose schools, at Grove House, Tottenham, he was educated. In 1848 he entered his father's manufactory in London, but at about the age of twenty he was threatened with consumption and forced to abandon business. During 1855–1856 he travelled in the United States of America to recruit his health. Proceeding in 1856 to Cuba, he met Henry Christy the ethnologist, with whom he visited Mexico. Tylor's association with Christy greatly stimulated his awakening interest in anthropology, and his visit to Mexico, with its rich prehistoric remains, led him to make a systematic study of the science. While on a visit to Cannes he wrote a record of his observations, entitled Anahuac; or, Mexico and the Mexicans, Ancient and Modern, which was published in 1861. In 1865 appeared Researches into the Early History of Mankind, which made Tylor's reputation. It showed great research, original insight, and much constructive power in the formation of systematic views. The chapters on early myths and their geographical distribution are especially valuable. The work reached a third edition in 1878. This book was followed in 1871 by the more elaborate Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art and Custom, which at once became the standard general treatise on anthropology. Tylor's treatment of animism (chs. xi.–xvii.) was particularly elaborate, and he first determined the limits of that province of anthropology intending it to include “the general doctrine of souls, and other spiritual beings.” In 1881 Tylor published a smaller and more popular handbook on Anthropology. His work had already met with recognition. In 1871 he was elected F.R.S., and in 1875 received the honorary degree of D.C.L. from the university of Oxford. He was appointed keeper of the University Museum at Oxford in 1883, and reader in anthropology in 1884. In 1888 he was appointed first Gifford lecturer at Aberdeen University, and delivered a two years' course on “Natural Religion.” In 1896 he became first professor of anthropology at Oxford. At the end of 1907 the Clarendon Press published a volume of Anthropological Essays, to which various representative scholars of a younger generation in the same field had contributed, the essays being dedicated and presented to Tylor as a mark of honour; and this collection includes not only a bibliography of his publications by Miss Freire-Marreco, but also an appreciation of Tylor's life-work by Andrew Lang.
TYMPANON, or Tympanum (Gr. τύμπανον, from τύπτειν, to strike), a name applied by the Romans to both kettledrum and tambourine, in the case of the latter sometimes qualified by leve. The tympanum leve, generally included among the tympana, described as being like a sieve, was the tambourine used in the rites of Bacchus and Cybele. Pliny doubtless described half pearls having one side round and the other flat, as tympania, on account of their resemblance to the tympanum or kettledrum, which, in its primitive form, innocent of screws or mechanism for tightening the head, exactly resembled the half pearl. During the middle ages the tympanum was generally a tambourine, the kettledrum being known as nacaire.
In architecture the term tympanum is given to the triangular space enclosed between the horizontal cornice of the entablature and the sloping cornice of the pediment. Though sometimes left plain, in the most celebrated Greek temples it was filled with sculpture of the highest standard ever attained. In Romanesque and Gothic work the term is applied to the space above the lintel or architrave of a door and the discharging arch over it, which was also enriched either with geometrical patterns or in later work with groups of figures; those in continental work are usually arranged in tiers. The upper portion of a gable when enclosed with a horizontal string-course, is also termed a tympanum.
TYNDALE (or Tindale), WILLIAM (c. 1492–1536), translator of the New Testament and Pentateuch (see Bible, English), was born on the Welsh border, probably in Gloucestershire, some time between 1490 and 1495. In Easter term 1510 he went to Oxford, where Foxe says he was entered of Magdalen Hall. He took his M.A. degree in 1515 and removed to Cambridge, where Erasmus had helped to establish a reputation for Greek and theology. Ordained to the priesthood, probably towards the close of 1521, he entered the household of Sir John Walsh, Old Sodbury, Gloucestershire, as chaplain and domestic tutor. Here he lived for two years, using his leisure in preaching in the villages and at Bristol, conduct which brought him into collision with the backward clergy of the district, and led to his being summoned before the chancellor of Worcester (William of Malvern) as a suspected heretic; but he was allowed to depart without receiving censure or giving any undertaking. But the persecution of the clergy led him to seek an antidote for what he regarded as the corruption of the Church, and he resolved to translate the New Testament into the vernacular. In this he hoped to get help from Cuthbert Tunstall, bishop of London, and so “with the good will of his master” he left Gloucester in the summer of 1523. Tunstall disappointed him, so he got employment as a preacher at St Dunstan's-in the-West, and worked at his translation, living as chaplain in the house of Humphrey Monmouth, an alderman, and forming a firm friendship with John Frith; but finding publication impossible in England, he sailed for Hamburg in, May 1524. After visiting Luther at Wittenberg, he settled with his amanuensis William Roy in Cologne, where he had made some progress in printing a 4to edition of his New Testament, when the work was discovered by John Cochlaeus, dean at Frankfurt, who not only got the senate of Cologne to interdict further printing, but warned Henry VIII. and Wolsey to watch the English ports. Tyndale and Roy escaped with their sheets to Worms, where the 8vo edition was completed in 1526. Copies were smuggled into England but were suppressed by the bishops, and William Warham, archbishop of Canterbury, even bought up copies on the Continent to destroy them. Attempts were made to seize Tyndale at Worms, but he found refuge at Marburg with Philip, landgrave of Hesse. There he probably met Patrick Hamilton, and was joined by John Frith. About this time he changed his views on the Eucharist and swung clean over from transubstantiation to the advanced Zwinglian position. His Parable of the Wicked Mammon (1528), Obedience of a Christen Man (1528), in which the two great principles of the English Reformation are set out, viz. the authority of Scripture in the Church and the supremacy of the king in the state, and Practyse of Prelates (1530), a strong indictment of the Roman Church and also of Henry VIII.'s divorce proceedings, were all printed at Marburg. In 1529 on his way to Hamburg he was wrecked on the Dutch coast, and lost his newly completed translation of Deuteronomy. Later in the year he went to Antwerp where he conducted his share of the classic controversy with Sir Thomas More. After Henry VIII.'s change of attitude towards Rome, Stephen Vaughan, the English envoy to the Netherlands, suggested Tyndale's return, but the reformer feared ecclesiastical hostility and declined. Henry then demanded his surrender from the emperor as one who was spreading sedition in England, and Tyndale left Antwerp for two years, returning in 1533 and
