Sudan, which remained entirely unaffected by events in Egypt.
The extent and influence of the Nationalist organization appear
to have been underestimated, and the British authorities evi-
dently did not anticipate that within a week after the deporta-
tion of the leaders the anti-British agitation would develop
into a national movement, supported by elements from every
class, including the Copts, many of whom were no doubt
prompted by prudential considerations to proclaim their soli-
darity with the Mussulman. That the fellahin, a pacific peasan-
try which had derived the greatest benefits from the British
occupation, should have been so readily led by agitation to
commit acts of savage violence had occasioned some surprise.
The movement among the fellahin was only of a very partial character, and generally restricted to the neighbourhood of large centres. At the same time several factors had by the end of 1918 combined to create a spirit of discontent and some loss of confidence in the British administration, which was made responsible for all the grievances experienced during the war. Recruiting for the labour and camel transport corps was in its earlier and really volunteer stage not unpopular, as the good wages paid were a boon to the poorer people, who enlisted again and again on the termination of their engagements. But when the voluntary system ceased to produce a sufficient number of men administrative pressure was exercised and the local officials took advantage of the absence of control. Unscru- pulous Omdas in many cases abused their position, accepting bribes for exemptions and sending their enemies to serve under methods resembling those of the press-gang, while alleging British pressure as their excuse. In spite of the good prices paid, the requisition of domestic animals pressed hardly on the small farmers, who had to part with their only means of trans- port. Still more resented was the requisition of cereals and the manner in which it was enforced. Requisition rates ranged lower than market rates, which tempted local officials to collect larger amounts than they were required to furnish in order to sell the balance at the higher price, while cultivators who grew no wheat had to buy their quota at the market rate and sell at requisition rates. The process of verification and repayment was inevitably slow and opened the door to abuses. Collec- tions for British Red Cross Funds, intended to be purely vol- untary, were enforced by officials seeking to acquire merit for the amounts realized in their districts, and were often regarded by the ignorant fellah as a contribution imposed upon him to the British war-chest. The prices of food, clothing and fuel rose to an unprecedented degree during the war, and the aver- age wages of the labouring class became inadequate to meet the enhanced cost of living and supply the necessaries of life. Meanwhile the fortunate producer of cotton and the privileged foreigner were seen to be accumulating fortunes. The discon- tent thus engendered among the poorer peasantry created a favourable field for the agitator, who proclaimed that the removal of the British occupation would ensure prosperity.
Lord Allenby's Regime. Lord Allenby, the C.-in-C. in Egypt, who had left for Paris on March 12 1919, was directed to return at once as special High Commissioner during the absence of Sir R. Wingate, with instructions to restore law and order and " to administer in all matters as may be required by the necessity of maintaining the King's Protectorate on an equitable basis." The situation now passed from one of active to one of passive resistance. A general strike was maintained for only a few days, but students, lawyers and a large number of public officials declined to resume their activities. Lord Allenby adopted a policy of conciliation and, notwithstanding the dangerous interpretation to which such a rapid change of policy was liable, the removal of the embargo on the free move- ment of Egyptians was approved. This entailed the liberation of Zaghlul and his associates interned at Malta, who left for Paris, where their arrival almost coincided with President Wilson's recognition of the British protectorate. Their efforts to obtain a hearing at the Peace Conference were disappointed. Punitive measures for the outrages perpetrated during the outbreak inevitably tended to maintain embitterment.
On April 9 Rushdi Pasha reconstituted a Ministry with Adli Pasha as Minister of the Interior. An additional Ministry to take charge of all communications was now instituted. But the life of the new Government was ephemeral and, having failed to terminate the official strike while deprecating inter- - vention by the High Commissioner, Rushdi once more resigned on the 2ist. A stern proclamation by Lord Allenby, acting as C.-in-C. under powers of martial law, which announced that all officials not returning to duty forthwith would be struck off the lists, had the desired effect.
Appointment of the Milner Mission. H.M.'s Government now decided to send to Egypt a mission, under the chairmanship of Lord Milner, " to inquire into the causes of the recent dis- orders, and to report on the existing situation in the country and the form of the constitution which, under the protectorate, will be best calculated to promote its peace and prosperity, the progressive development of self-governing institutions, and the protection of foreign interests." Such were the terms of reference eventually drawn up. It would have been well if such a commission could have proceeded at once, while the impression of repressive measures was still strong, before the Nationalist movement had completed its organization, had exploited industrial unrest and extended throughout the coun- try a propaganda which now received open encouragement from sections of the Arab university of El Azhar. But cir- cumstances rendered its departure impossible before the autumn. A month after Rushdi's resignation, Mohammed Said Pasha (Prime Minister 1910-3) formed a new Ministry, in spite of the opposition which was henceforth to be anticipated to any com- bination from the Nationalists. Certain changes were also regarded as opportune in the British personnel. Sir Paul Harvey, who had resigned the position of Financial Adviser during Lord Kitchener's administration, returned. Sir W. Brunyate, who had acted in that capacity since the death of Lord Edward Cecil, also resigned his position as Judicial Adviser. Mr. Doug- las Dunlop, Adviser to the Minister of Education, whose depart- ment had been much attacked, was replaced by Mr. R. S. Patterson, the Director-General of Accounts, as was Mr. Haines, the Adviser to the Interior, by Brig.-Gen. Sir G. F. Clayton, chief political officer to the Egyptian Force. A period of drift now ensued during which, though conditions appeared outwardly calm, the Nationalists continued to be active and to advocate a boycott of the Mission.
Among the arguments used to discredit the British admin- istration much capital was made among the small landowners by the allegation of an intention to curtail the water-supply of Egypt in favour of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. A project had been adopted, for the construction of barrages at Gebel Aulia and Sennar on the White and Blue Niles respectively. The former was designed to create a reservoir which would enable the remaining waste lands of Egypt, some 1,900,000 ac., to be cultivated, while extending perennial irrigation to some 1,200,- ooo more, now under basin cultivation, and therefore restricted to one crop in each year. The Blue Nile dam to be constructed near Sennar contemplated the raising of the river to a level necessary to feed a great canal which would irrigate the triangle south of Khartum known as the Gezira, approximately equal in area to the Egyptian Delta, and suitable for raising cotton. The unfortunate attacks made by Sir W. Willcocks and Col. Kennedy on Sir Murdoch Macdonald, Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works, which were shown by the report of the eminent irrigation experts serving on the Nile Projects Commission to be unfounded, did much to encourage these misrepresentations. Charges repeatedly preferred against the Adviser of having falsified figures to justify his proposals rendered inevitable a prosecution for criminal libel which ended in conviction.
The proposal to boycott the Milner Mission gained strength from the protest of the Prime Minister against its arrival before the signature of peace with Turkey, and his resignation which followed. Wahba Pasha, who had acted as Minister of Finance in the last two Cabinets, consented with no little courage to preside over a Ministry of Affairs.
