munication across a deep gorge or wide river. Many forms of floating bridges have also been constructed from local boats or barges where the pontoon equipment has not been available.
In uncivilized countries the chief problems for the bridge- builder are to devise the best use to which to put the scanty supply of materials available, and to adapt the local resources of the country to advantage, knowing that the transport difficul- ties render it impossible to obtain all he would desire. But, great as is the task of bridge-building for an army in undeveloped countries, greater still is the work of reconstruction during an advance in a highly developed theatre of war such as France. There the accumulation of means of attack and defence on a grand scale is made possible by the fulness of the communications, yet at the same time each of these many lines of communication is sensitive at every river-crossing. Almost without exception these bridges are destroyed by the enemy on his retire- ment, and an army cannot safely push on its advance without its full equipment of battle means and without clear routes for its supply transport. Hence it is no exaggeration to say that in the final campaign of 1918 in France the power of the British army to advance depended on the speed with which the Royal Engineers could construct bridge-crossings and roads.
During the period Aug.-Nov. 1918 no less than 539 heavy bridges were erected on this front alone, of which 326 were standard steel bridges and 2 13 of heavy timber or salved material, not taking into account the innumerable light improvised cross- ings and footbridges by which the leading infantry were enabled to attack, and the pontoon and light trestle bridges for field artillery and horse transport.
For such a task executive energy, organization and technical skill are equally, and each in the highest degree, necessary. And to these qualities of the military bridge-builder must be added, for the work in the forward zone, that of personal devotion under fire. It is significant that of the Victoria Crosses awarded to officers and men of the Royal Engineers in the World War more than half were won by acts of conspicuous gallantry in the con- struction and demolition of bridges. (E. N. S.)
BRIEUX, EUGENE (1858- ), French dramatist (see 4.563*),
published four plays after 1910: La Foi (1912); La Femme Seule
(1913); Le Bourgeois aux champs (1914) and Les Americains
chez nous (1920). He also wrote some accounts of travel, Voyages
aux Indes et a Indo-Chine (1910) and Au Japan par Java, la
Chine, la Corie (1914), as well as a couple of pamphlets addressed
to soldiers, one before and one during the World War, during
which he devoted himself with particular ardour and activity
to the care of those blinded by wounds.
BRIGGS, CHARLES AUGUSTUS (1841-1913), American theologian (see 4.566), died in New York June 8 1913. His last published works were Church Unity (1909); The Fundamental Faith (1913) and, posthumously, Theological Symbolics (1914).
BRIGHT, JAMES FRANCK (1832-1920), English historian, was born in London May 29 1832. He was the son of Richard
Bright, the physician who first diagnosed " Bright's disease "
in 1827, and his mother was Eliza Follett, sister of Sir William
Follett, who was solicitor-general and attorney-general in
Peel's administration (1834-44). He was educated at Rugby
under Dr. Arnold and at University College, Oxford, where he
graduated with first-class honours in 1854. In 1856 he was
ordained deacon and joined the staff of Marlborough College,
and was the first public schoolmaster to organize a modern side.
For this purpose he wrote the necessary school-books himself,
including his well-known History of England. After his wife's
death in 1871 he left Marlborough and went to Oxford as a
modern history tutor and lecturer at University, Balliol and New
Colleges and in 1874 was elected to a fellowship at University and
in 1878 to an honorary fellowship at Balliol. In 1881 he became
master of University College, and threw himself with vigour into
university and City life, becoming treasurer of the Radcliffe
infirmary, and founder of the first technical school in Oxford, for
which he presented a site. His latter years were spent at Ditch-
ingharn, Norfolk, where he died Oct. 23 1920. He also published
Lives of Maria Theresa and Joseph II. (1897).
- These figures indicate the volume an
BRINKLEY, FRANK (1841-1912), British author, was born in 1841. Having entered the British army, he went to Japan in
1867 in command of a battery of artillery. In 1871 he became
principal instructor at the Marine College, Tokyo, under the
Japanese Government, and henceforth devoted himself to things
Japanese. He left the army, married a Japanese lady, and in
1 88 1 founded the Japan Mail, of which he was proprietor and
editor till his death. He was also correspondent for the London
Times in Japan. He published Japan (1901); Japan and China
(1903), as well as a Japanese-English dictionary, and was the
author of the article JAPAN in the earlier volumes of this encyclo-
paedia. He held a unique position among foreign residents in
Japan, alike as a profound student of its history and art, and as
a powerful factor in international politics. He died at Tokyo
October 28 1912.
BRISSON, EUGENE HENRI (1835-1912), French statesman
(see 4.574), was again elected president of the Chamber in 1912, and died at his official residence April 14 1912.
BRITISH COLUMBIA (see 4.598). This Canadian province is traversed from S. to N. by four principal ranges of mountains the Rocky and Selkirk ranges on the east, and the Coast and Island ranges on the west. The Rocky Mountain range preserves its continuity, but the Selkirks are broken up into the Purcell, the Selkirk, the Gold and the Cariboo mountains. Between these
ranges and the Rockies lies a valley of remarkable length and
regularity, extending from the international boundary line
along the western base of the Rockies northwards for 700 miles.
West of these ranges extend the remains of a vast plateau or
tableland with an average elevation of 3,000 ft. above sea-level,
which has been so worn away and eroded by watercourses that
in many parts it presents the appearance of a succession of
mountains. In others it spreads out into wide plains and rolling
ground dotted with low hills, which constitute fine areas of
farming and pasture lands. This interior plateau is bounded on
the W. by the Coast Range and on the N. by a cross-range which
gradually merges into the Arctic slope.
The area of British Columbia according to the census report of 1911 was 353,416 sq. m. of land, 2,439 sq. m. of water, a total f 355)^55 sq. m., and in 1919 was estimated at 395,610 sq. m.
Population. The pop. of British Columbia increased from 36,247 (less than 10,000 of whom were whites) in 1871 to 392,480 in 1911. The estimated pop. in 1920 was about 650,000. The Chinese pop. was 19,568 in 1911. Japanese immigration took place chiefly after the restriction of Chinese immigration in 1906: in the census of 1911 Japanese numbered 8,587. It is, however, limited by agreement between the Governments of Canada and Japan to 400 per year. After 1906 Hindus, mainly Sikhs, attracted by the high wages paid to other Orientals, came in large numbers and objection to their immigration was quite as strong as that to Chinese and Japanese. The situation was a delicate one from the fact that these people were British subjects and many of them had served in the British army as soldiers. Their further influx was prevented by diplomatic arrangement. The number of Hindus in the census of 1911 was recorded as 2,292. The Indian pop. was returned as 24,744. Of these all but 1,334 were professing Christians. Although about 750,000 ac. have been set apart and occupied as Indian reservations, not more than 2 % of the land has been cultivated. The only Indians of British Columbia who devote themselves to agriculture to any extent are several tribes in Yale and Okanagan districts. The Indians are entirely self-supporting: those of the northern interior sell furs to the various trading companies; those on the coast and southern interior are employed in fishing, in the salmon canneries, and in hop-picking. To some extent they are employed in the lumber woods and in various other capacities. Their education is almost exclusively in the hands of several religious denominations, Methodist, Presbyterian, Anglican and Roman Catholic, whose respective spheres of influence are recognized by the Department of Indian Affairs. The Indians of British Columbia have always been peaceably disposed, largely in consequence of the satisfactory manner in which the Hudson's 'Bay Co. dealt with them for many years. Several of the tribes on Vancouver I. and mainland coasts and one or two in the interior were at one time regarded as a dangerous element, but they are now quiet and peaceable. The Indians are divided into many tribes under local names, but fall naturally on linguistic grounds into a few large groups. They are made up of the following stocks: Haidan, Tsimshian, Wakashan, Dgne (or Athapaskan), Kootenaian and Salishan. More than 2,000 belong to nomadic tribes whose affiliations are probably Athapaskan. There was for some years a considerable decrease of Indian population on account of the ravages of disease, but it would
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