Administration. In 1913 the two legislative bodies, the
General Assembly and the Legislative Council, were replaced by a
single body called the Legislative Assembly consisting of (i)
Cabinet ministers; (2) 66 elected members; and (3) 17 members
nominated to represent minorities. Members were to hold their
seats for six years, one-third being elected every two years. The
Legislative Assembly met in 1913 and had a somewhat stormy
session. In 1914 martial law was proclaimed and there were no
further sittings of the Assembly.
On the proclamation of the British protectorate (Dec. 4 1914) a High Commissioner replaced the British consul and agent- general. The then ruler, the Khedive 'Abbas Hilmi, was deposed and his cousin Husein Kamel, a son of the Khedive Isma'il, was placed on the throne with the title of sultan; on Husein's death his brother Ahmed Fuad Pasha became sultan (Oct. 9 1917). The capitulations continued in force pending the elabora- tion of measures which satisfied foreign Powers that under a new judicial system the interests of their subjects would be safe-guarded. (See below, History.)
The most useful records of the finances, administration and social and economic condition of Egypt are the Reports of the British Agent-general published annually in London down to 1914. In 1920 appeared a Report from the High Commissioner covering the period of 1914-9, a report to which the present writer is indebted. Detailed information is given in annual reports of the various Egyptian ministries issued at Cairo. For a recent study of the Copts see S. H. Leader, The Modern Sons of the Pharaohs (1918). See also M. S. Briggs, Through Egypt in War Time (1918).
(F. R. C.)
POLITICAL HISTORY 1909-21
The Pre-war Period. The policy of entrusting the Egyptians with a larger administrative responsibility was initiated under Sir Eldon Gorst, who succeeded Lord Cromer as British Agent and Consul-General in 1907. Considerable success attended the extension of ampler powers to provincial councils, which in 1909 took over the direction of elementary education. But a sufficient period of time did not elapse before his premature death in 1911 to give the experiment a fair trial, and the new policy, which was generally interpreted in Egypt as an attempt to conciliate opposition by concession, rather stimulated than discouraged Nationalist agitation. In Feb. 1910 Boutros Ghali Pasha, the first Copt to attain the rank of Premier, was assas- sinated by a young Egyptian of the Nationalist party, which proclaimed the murderer a patriot and provoked demonstra- tions during his trial. Their influence had affected the General Assembly, which displayed its anglophobia by rejecting a pro- posal to extend the existing concession of the Suez Canal Co. after its expiry in 1968. The British Agent was compelled to recommend drastic measures to stop anti-British manifesta- tions and Sheikh "Abd el 'Aziz Shawish, the moving spirit behind them, was expelled from Egyptian territory. It is sig- nificant that he established his residence in Berlin. Mohammed Said Pasha became Prime Minister and Jusuf Saba Pasha, hither- to Director-General of Posts, joined the Cabinet. A long-felt want was supplied in 1910 by the creation of an Agricultural Department under the Minister of Public Works. After the murder of Boutros Pasha the tension between Copts and Mos- lems increased and a Coptic Conference held at Assiut in March 1911 drew up a memorandum preferring complaints of unfair treatment which the British Agent was unable to regard as justified. Sir Eldon Gorst, who had long been in failing health, requested to be relieved of his functions early in July 1911 and a few days afterwards he died. His long and intimate knowledge of the country lends special importance to his final report for 1910, in which he recognized that the Legislative Council and General Assembly had become instruments of agitation against the occupying Power and that the new policy had failed.
It might be open to question how far it would generally be opportune to appoint a former servant of the Egyptian Govern- ment to be representative of Great Britain in Egypt. An excep- tion was, however, certainly justifiable in the case of Lord Kitchener, who had, moreover, been employed for many years elsewhere and who enjoyed exceptional prestige. He arrived
in Egypt at the end of Sept. 1911. A fortnight later the Italian landing in Tripolitania followed a declaration of war with Turkey. Egypt was at once declared neutral. H.M. Govern- ment contested on behalf of Egypt the claim of Italy to block- ade the coast up to a point 100 m. E. of Sollum, that post, which was occupied by an Egyptian force, being regarded as the limit of her western frontier. In spite of a general feeling of sympathy with a Moslem belligerent, intensified by geographi- cal proximity and racial kinship, the Egyptian people displayed self-control, and neutrality was strictly observed. But the Libyan War had the effect of stimulating the patriotic sentiment which is largely a patriotism of Islam. The anarchical spirit displayed by the murder of Boutros Pasha was again revealed in July 1912, when a plot was detected to murder the Khedive, Lord Kitchener and the Prime Minister.
Lord Kitchener's energies were first devoted to the needs of the Egyptian peasantry. A law was introduced exempting small holdings up to 5-15 ac. from distraint for debt, while usurious money-lending at more than 9% was made punish- able by fine and imprisonment. Boards of local magistrates were instituted to summarily decide trivial cases and avoid costly suits. Steps were taken to preserve the bird life so neces- sary to keep down cotton pests. Thanks to his efforts the beautiful egret, which was rapidly being exterminated, has once more become conspicuous in the fields. A representa- tive international cotton congress was summoned to meet at the end of 1912. In that year Mohammed Said lost the serv- ices of Sa'd Zaghlul Pasha, his Minister of Justice, who subse- quently became the leader of the Nationalists. But his admin- istration was strengthened in 1913 by the formation of two new ministries, those of Waqfs (see 17.413) and Agriculture. Tension with the Khedive, however, led to his resignation in 1914. He was succeeded by Husein Rushdi Pasha, who remained in office throughout the period of the World War.
New Legislative Assembly. The salient measure of Lord Kitchener's administration was a revision of the Organic Law of 1883 and the institution of a Legislative Assembly on a broader electoral basis than that of the old Legislative Council and General Assembly. Under the previous system the villages appointed representatives by manhood suffrage to elect pro- vincial councils. The provincial councils returned 14 mem- bers from their own body to represent the provinces in the Legislative Council, to which 12 more were nomi- nated by the Khedive. The council of 26, with the ministers and 46 other delegates elected by the village representatives, constituted the General Assembly. All laws and decrees before approval had to be submitted to the Legislative Council, which could invite information, submit petitions and criticize the budget. The General Assembly, with similar powers of dis- cussion and criticism, met at rarer intervals. Its concurrence was necessary for any measures involving fresh taxation, but it had no power to initiate legislation. There was no justifi- cation for the existence of two bodies performing practically the same functions, and the inclusion of members of the pro- vincial councils, whose duties were entirely different, was an anomaly. A single Legislative Assembly was now substituted for these two bodies, with considerably extended powers, includ- ing that of initiating measures on its own responsibility. It was made incumbent on the Government to justify persistence in legislation disapproved by the majority, and machinery was also introduced enabling the Government to directly consult the electors in regard to proposals rejected by the Assembly. The electorate was based on the old register, with the addition of all newly qualified voters, and numbered some two millions. Electors were divided into groups of 50, which returned dele- gates to carry the vote of each group to the poll.
Three weeks elapsed between the choice of delegates and the final elections. The first Assembly consisted of 49 landowners, 2 lawyers, 3 religious dignitaries and one engineer. The presi- dent and one vice-president were appointed by the Govern- ment. As elective vice-president Sa'd Zaghlul Pasha, who was already hailed by the opposition press as the champion of
