League of Nations, who in May 1921 issued their award: they were to remain a part of Finland, with local autonomy.
2. The former Baltic provinces, after their separation from Russia during the war, organized themselves into three States, Latvia, Esthonia and Lithuania, with republican institutions; with the help first of the Germans and afterwards of the Allies, they succeeded after severe fighting in repelling several Bol- shevik attacks, and at the beginning of 1921 Latvia and Esthonia were formally recognized by the Allies. The relations to Russia were determined by treaties signed at Reval in April 1921. Formal recognition of the Government of Lithuania by the Allies was still delayed during 1921, chiefly owing to the fact that the Poles were desirous of bringing about some kind of union between Lithuania and Poland. The boundaries of the two States remained at issue, both of them claiming the city of Vilna. After the repulse of the Bolsheviks in 1920, it was in Oct. of the same year seized by a lawless act of force on the part of the Polish Gen. Zeligowski, with the scarcely veiled connivance of the Polish Government. It was agreed that the dispute should be referred to the League of Nations.
3. The most important change was the reconstitution of an independent Poland, a natural result of the fall of the three military monarchies responsible for the partitions. The frontiers of the State created great difficulties and serious differences be- tween the Allies, and it was only late in 1921 that, after ref- erence to the League of Nations, a decision was arrived at regard- ing Upper Silesia (see SILESIA).
The future of this part of Europe depended on Russia and Poland. It had been the ambition of Poland, in which she was supported by France, to succeed to the position which in older days the Polish Monarchy had held, and with very extensive territory which, had all her claims been granted, would have contained a pop. of nearly 40 millions, to be a permanent barrier between Germany and Russia. But ambitions of this nature require great administrative capacity as well as extended posses- sions. The Poles, largely owing to the continuous warfare in which they were involved, found little time for dealing with the administrative problems; the finances fell into a state of disorder, the Polish mark being quoted in 1921 at 8,000 to the pound sterling. The amalgamation of Russian, Austrian and Prussian Poland presented grave difficulties, and there was danger lest Poland might become a source of weakness rather than of strength. The permanent peace of Europe in the east could not be secured until a friendly and pacific Government was estab- lished in Russia, and it was unlikely that any settled Russian Gov- ernment would acquiesce in the complete separation of the Baltic provinces, which intervene between Russia and the sea, or in the permanent cession of large portions of White Russia and the Ukraine to Poland, inhabited as they are by a population Russian in origin and speech.
The Balkans. The result of the war in the Balkans was, first, the completion of the process by which the Turkish Empire in Europe ceased to exist, and secondly a continuation of the work of the Treaty of Bucharest by which Bulgarian ambitions were sacrificed to the rival States of Serbia and Greece. By the Treaty of Sevres the Sultan was deprived of all his European possessions except Constantinople, where he enjoyed only the shadow of authority, the Straits, so long the centre of inter- national rivalry, being transferred to international control. The decision of the Treaty of Bucharest, by which Macedonia was divided between Serbia and Greece, was maintained; but in addition, by the Treaty of Neuilly, Greece came into the posses- sion of the whole of the north coast of the Aegean (thereby cutting off Bulgaria from this sea) as well as Thrace, including the city of Adrianople. On the north the whole of the Dobrudja was assigned to Rumania; Bulgaria therefore came out of the war with a territory of about 71,000 sq. m. and pop. of five millions, much the smallest of the Balkan States a great disappointment in view of the high ambitions which had been entertained such a short time before. Another new State was permanently added to Europe in Albania, which at the As- sembly of 1920 was admitted as a member of the League of
Nations. The final decision as to the frontiers had not yet been arrived at in 1921, 'owing to the difficulty of reconciling the rival ambitions of Greece and Italy. There were many other causes of unrest. The Balkan settlement had been markedly favourable to Greece, chiefly owing to the confidence given by the Allies to M. Venizelos. The Greek elections of 1920, which brought about the fall of that statesman and (after the early death of King Alexander) the restoration of Constantine, had therefore more than local importance. It seemed for the moment as though the whole basis of the settlement had been destroyed. The Treaty of Sevres was not ratified. The Turkish National party under Kemal Pasha, which had established itself in Anatolia, with its capital at Angora, claimed for Turkey not only the whole of Asia Minor, but large parts of Thrace, including Adrianople, while the extremists went so far as to demand the restoration of the whole Turkish Empire, including Mesopotamia and Pales- tine. There was some evidence of serious discord between the Allies; both Italy and France entered into separate negotiations with the Kemalists. At the Conference of London, March 1921, which was attended by representatives both of the recognized Government in Constantinople and of the Kemalists, an attempt was made to find some basis of agreement between the Greeks and the Turks; this failed; a state of war followed, and though the Greeks started their campaign in Asia Minor successfully, their effort was brought to a standstill in the autumn.
Looking at Europe as a whole, it is seen that in 1921 the political system which had existed for so long, depending on the mutual rivalries and cooperation of some five or six great States, approximately equal in power, had for the time ceased to exist. Of them there remained only Great Britain, France and Italy; Germany, though she had retained her unity, was prevented from asserting her place as an independent European Power by the very stringent disarmament conditions which had been im- posed upon her, and also by the economic difficulties involved in the reparation clauses of the Treaty. The immediate result there- fore was the ascendancy of France, who had, at any rate for the time, regained the position as the leading continental State, which in earlier days had come to be regarded as her permanent prerogative. This position France was aiming at making per- manent, first by cementing her control over all countries on the left bank of the Rhine, and secondly by the establishment of a powerful Poland, the policy of which should be subservient to that of France. The interests of Italy were concentrated on the south-east of Europe, the Mediterranean and western Asia.
As a result of the war and the peace, the immediate general control, at any rate over all matters springing out of the treaties, was vested in the " Principal Allied and Associated Powers "- Great Britain, France, Italy, the United States and Japan; as the United States did not ratify the treaties, and Japan took little part in European affairs, the group practically consisted, up to the autumn of 1921, of the three other Powers, with whom for certain purposes Belgium was associated. The organs through which they worked were the Ambassadorial Conference sitting at Paris, and the Council of Prime Ministers, which met from time to time to deal with larger political matters. It followed from this that the peace and order of the continent, which was so essential in order to give an opportunity to repair the ravages of the war and meet the grave economic difficulties under which Europe was labouring, ultimately depended upon the friendly cooperation of these three Powers. This cooperation was not maintained without difficulty. In particular there were serious differences between Great Britain and France with regard to the treatment of Germany, the execution of the reparation clauses of the Treaty, and as to Polish affairs. These reached a crisis when in March 1920 the French, without consulting their Allies, occupied Frankfurt and other towns on the right bank of the Rhine, and again in July-Aug. 1921, when there was a grave difference of opinion as to Upper Silesia. There were also open disagreements as to the Near East. The unity of aims which alone could give efficiency to their joint action was wanting.
Side by side with the Supreme Council was the League of Nations, but the relation of the two organs had not been clearly
