and Great Britain a few years later. The organization then consisted of 20 States, with an annual income of 1,700; the larger States con- tributing 160 annually. The principal functions of the bureau were to receive and distribute information and to publish systematic lists of earthquakes. Part of the funds was used in paying scientific workers appointed by the association for the purpose of carrying out special researches. The convention lapsed in 1915.
3. International Commission for the Telegraphic Distribution of Astronomical_ Information. This was to begin with a body consist- ing of the directors of the principal astronomical observatories in Europe and America, which arranged for the telegraphic distribu- tion of astronomical information. The preliminary arrangements were confirmed by a meeting of astronomers held in Vienna in 1883, when formal statutes for the future conduct of the work were adopted. The headquarters of the organization were at Kiel. The office and working expenses were met by subscriptions from the observatories receiving the information. These were originally fixed at 6 annually, but were subsequently reduced owing to the facilities given by cable companies, which transmit a certain number of messages without charge.
4. The International Permanent Agricultural Institute. This was the outcome of an international meeting held at Rome during 1905 on the invitation of the King of Italy. The institute has its perma- nent seat at Rome, and its constitution follows lines similar to those of other international conventions. The principal object of the institute is to collect, publish and disseminate statistical information relating to agriculture, to notify new diseases in plants, and to pre- sent, if expedient, to the Governments, for their approval, measures for the protection of the common interests of agriculturists. Ques- tions relating to the economic interests of States are excluded.
5. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. This was constituted in 1902 as a result of discussions held at conferences meeting in Stockholm and Christiania in 1899 and 1901 respectively. It confined itself to questions relating to sea fisheries in N. -Euro- pean seas, and developed as an economic and political, rather than a scientific, movement. The headquarters were at Copenhagen. The countries originally adhering to the convention were Denmark, Germany, England, Finland, Holland, Norway, Russia, and Swe- den. The first convention was made for five years, but annual meetings continued to be held. A number of committees were appointed to deal with different branches of the work. Large sums of money were spent on the work ; the total contribution of England amounted to 70,000 (14,000 annually).
6. The Marey Institute. This institute was founded by M. Marey for the standardization and improvement of instruments used in physiological researches. Its laboratory is at Paris, and its work is controlled by an International Committee. The French Govern- ment contributed annually 25,000 fr., and the Swiss Government 1,000 fr. In addition, occasional money contributions were made by the academies of Paris, Leipzig, and St. Petersburg, as well as the Royal Society and the university of London.
7 and 8. The Solar Union and the Scientific Sub- Committees of the International Meteorological Committee are entered both under Groups I. and II., because their activity includes to a considerable degree scientific investigation as well as standardization.
GROUP III.
1. The International Astrographic Chart. The idea of forming a detailed photographic chart of the heavens originated with the late Sir David Gill, but the organization for its practical execution was mainly due to the efforts of Adml. Mouchez, who at the time was director of the Paris observatory. Its programme of work was determined upon at an international conference held in Paris in 1887. The photographs were taken at 18 observatories, of which six were in Great Britain and its colonies, four in France and its colonies, two in Italy, one each in Germany, Finland and Chile. Each country paid the expenses of its own observatories.
2. Carte Internationale du Monde au Millionieme. The proposal to issue a map of the world on a uniform plan was initiated at a con- ference held in London in 1910. In this conference only those coun- tries took part who were represented by ambassadors at the Court of St. James. A second conference, in which other countries also took part, was held at Paris in Dec. 1913. Further details with regard to the construction of the map were settled, and it was resolved that a permanent central office should be established in England for the communication of data, interchange of information, and the publi : cation of an annual report. The headquarters of the office are at the Ordnance Survey, Southampton.
3. The International Catalogue of Scientific Literature. This catalogue, which begins with the year 1901, has its central office in London. Twenty-nine countries (counting the four Australian colonies separately) participate in the work, and most of them have established Regional Bureaux for the preliminary work of preparing the slips which are transmitted to England. The annual expenses before the war were approximately covered by the guarantees of different countries, which took the form of subscriptions for copies of the work, and the independent sales.
Sufficient has now been said to illustrate the variety both in method of work and constitution of the great number of Inter-
national Unions that had gradually come into existence before the World War. The freedom from tradition and convention with which scientific men interested in a particular subject com- bined together for a common object had undoubted advantages, as each combination could adopt the constitution best suited to its needs. But there were serious drawbacks. One was the multiplication of bodies. The above list includes five independ- ent organizations dealing with divisions of astronomy. Though they concerned themselves with well-defined branches of the subject, and did not interfere with each other, the great increase in the number of meetings that had to be attended by the same men at different times and in different parts of the world called for some kind of unification. The formation of a more compre- hensive body dealing with the whole of astronomy became, for this reason alone, almost inevitable. Then there was the ques- tion of funds, which could only be obtained with increasing difficulty, unless some particular Government showed a special and not always altruistic interest in the subject, and attained its object by diplomatic pressure. The International Geodetic Association was brought into existence through diplomatic agencies, and its constitution was vitiated by a not very effec- tive but nevertheless annoying attempt at Government control. It was provided, for instance, that correspondence between the president and the scientific organizations in each State should only be carried out through diplomatic channels, and the asso- ciation could not itself determine the seat of its Central Bureau. The delegates at the meeting were appointed by the Govern- ments, and often received definite instructions beforehand with regard to their vote. Similar provisions were made originally in the case of the International Association of Seismology, and were abandoned only as a concession to France, England and the United States, who made this a condition of their joining. It had been hoped at one time that a combination of the leading academies of different countries would help in system- atizing international efforts. In the year 1899 a meeting was held at Wiesbaden at which representatives of the principal scientific and literary academies discussed the formation of an International Association of Academies, and drafted statutes for such an association. The proceedings at the meeting having been ratified by the bodies concerned, the association was' formed and held five meetings at triennial intervals (Paris 1901; London 1904; Vienna 1907; Rome 1910; and St. Petersburg 1913). Twenty-four academies ultimately formed part of the association, though two of them (the Royal Society of Edin- burgh and the Finnish Academy of Helsingfors) , having only been elected in 1913, never took an active part in the work. The declared object of the association was " to prepare and promote scientific enterprises (travaux scientifiques) of general interest, proposed by one of the Associated Academies, and tc facilitate in a general way scientific intercourse between different countries." The attitude of this new body towards other inter- national organizations was discussed at the meeting held at London in 1904 when the following resolution was passed by 19 votes against one:
" That the initiation of any new international organization, be maintained by subventions from the different states, demands careful previous examination into the value and objects of such organization, and that it is desirable that proposals to establish such organizations should be considered by the International Asso- ciation of Academies before definite action is taken."
This resolution only applied to the initiation of new organiza- tions, as the Association of Academies could not claim to exercise any control over the large number that were already in operation. Nevertheless, it was hoped that it might promote coordination by suggestion and advice.
The Association of Academies included the humanistic well as the scientific branches of knowledge. It would be easy to point out some valuable undertakings carried out by this body, but the sum total of its effective influence was disappointing. In view of the later period of reconstruction it is necessary to allude to the main source of its weakness. Owing to the limita- tions of their membership and the great subdivision of our
