for example, in order to prevent industrial dislocation. Conditions are usually attached to any relaxation of, or exemption from, the normal limit of hours.
In several countries a shorter working day has been introduced by agreement between employers and workpeople, thus anticipating or supplementing legislation on this point. This method has been largely adopted in Italy, the United States, etc. In Australia the 8-hour day, or 48-hour week, has been in operation for many years either by agreement or arbitration award.
Hours of Women and Children. A great deal was done, in various countries, to improve conditions under this heading during 1910-20 (see also HOURS OF LABOUR).
France. A law dated 1911 amended the law of Nov. 1892, on the labour of women and children in industrial establishments, so as to bring it into accord with the Berne Convention on night-work of women. The provision of the earlier law, prescribing that young per- sons of less than 18 and women might not be employed between the hours of 9 P.M. and 5 A.M., was retained, and in addition it was laid down that such persons must have not less than II consecutive hours of rest at night. In the case of lads and boys working under- ground in mines and quarries, work might, as before, be authorized from 4 A.M. to 10 P.M., provided that it was divided into two shifts of not more than 9 hours each, broken by an interval of at least one hour. For women over 1 8 employed in certain trades, to be deter- mined by ordinance and on due notice being given, work might continue up to 10 P.M. (formerly II P.M.) at certain periods of the year for not more than 60 days in the year, but in no case must the number of hours worked per day exceed 12. In these trades and in trades in which, under Article 7 of the law of 1892, the restrictions as to the length of the daily hours of labour might be temporarily suspended by ordinance, the consecutive rest period might be reduced to 10 hours. Temporary exemptions might be made in the case of certain industries determined by ordinance, and, as before, permis- sion to work beyond the usual hours, or to shorten the period of nightly rest, might also be granted in the case of stoppages due to accident or unforeseen occurrences. A law of June 1913 was passed for the protection of women workers before and after childbirth. By a law dated 1917, the principle of freedom from work on Saturday afternoons was laid down for women employed in the clothing trades in France. A law dated 1919, and operating as from Oct. 1920, pro- hibited employment in bakeries between, 10 P.M. and 4 A.M.
Belgium. A law passed in April 1911 amended the existing laws, and, among other provisions, required the abolition of the under- ground labour of all females and of males under 14 years of age, as from the beginning of the third year from the date of promulgation. By a law of Aug. 1911, night-work of women and girls was prohibited in industrial establishments in which more than 10 workpeople are employed, and every woman or girl employed in such establishments must be granted not less than 1 1 consecutive hours of rest at night, this period of rest including the interval from 9 P.M. to 5 A.M. Exceptions were made in the case of seasonal trades, unforeseen circumstances and materials liable to rapid deterioration.
Switzerland. In 1915, the Swiss Factory Act of 1877, which was amended in certain respects in 1905, was superseded by a new Act. As in the former law, women are forbidden to work at night or on Sundays. A new provision states that the Federal Council is to pre- scribe the branches of work or particular occupations in which women may not be employed under any circumstances. Women must have a night's rest of at least 1 1 consecutive hours, including the period from 10 P.M. to 5 A.M.; but by special permission this may be re- duced to 10 hours for 60 days in the year, or, when perishable ma- terials are being worked upon, for 140 days. The former law provided that, for a period in all of 8 weeks before and after confinement, wornen should be exempted from work in factories; the later law provides for their exclusion from work in factories for 6 weeks follow- ing confinement, which period, at their request, may be extended to 8 weeks. The later law retains the limit of 14 years as the minimum age at which children may be allowed to work in factories, and also the provision forbidding the employment of young persons under 1 8 at night-work and on Sundays. A new provision states that children under 16 may not be employed upon work where the normal hours are exceeded, and the Federal Council is to prescribe certain branches of industry or certain occupations at which young persons under 16 must not be employed at all. The new law also reduced the length of the working-day in factories from II to 10 hours.
Holland. A royal decree dated Oct. 1911 approved the text of a labour law amending the regulations hitherto in operation governing the employment of young persons and women in industry in the Netherlands. No child under the age of 13 might be employed in an industrial establishment, nor any person over that age not exempt from school attendance. Previously the minimum age of admission had been 12 years. The hours of labour of young persons (denned as those under the age of 17) and women in factories, etc., might not exceed 10 per day or 58 per week (instead of II per day as before), nor might these workers be employed, as a general rule, before 6 A.M. or after 7 P.M. (formerly 5 A.M. and 7 P.M.). Women having household duties to perform, and making a declaration to that effect, might not be employed after I P.M. on Saturdays; and by ministerial
order no young person or woman might be employed after that hour in any or in certain specified trades. Under a labour law of 1919, any work by children under 14 years of age or by those to whom the Education Act is applicable is prohibited as from July 1921. Young persons (i. e. persons between 14 and 18) are not to work on Sundays, except outside factories, workshops, shops, offices, etc. Young persons may not work outside factories, workshops, shops, etc., between 7 P.M. and 6 A.M. ; in shops and in coffee-houses and hotels between 8 P.M. and 8 A.M. ; in offices between 6 P.M. and 8 A.M. In factories, workers over 15 may do certain defined work, or work under certain defined conditions, between the hours of 6 P.M. and 10 P.M. and between 5 A.M. and 7 A.M. By royal decree, certain kinds of work, or work under certain conditions to be defined by such decree, may not be done by young persons or women on the ground of its danger to health, morality or life. Women may not work for at least 2 weeks before, and 6 weeks after, confinement.
Norway. The Norwegian Factory Act of 1909, together with amending laws dated 1910 and 191 1, was superseded by a law dated Sept. 1915. With the exception of new provisions relating to daily working hours and night-work, the 1915 Act was practically identical with that of 1909. The most important change introduced by the new clauses is the limitation of the working hours of adults employed in factories, irrespective of sex, to 10 hours per day, or 54 weekly. In the previous law no regulations whatever were included with regard to working hours of adults (defined as persons over 18 years of age). In the case of persons employed in mines (so far as concerns underground work), foundries, and book and newspaper printing works, the hours of labour as a general rule are not to exceed 48 per week. For the first time in Norwegian factory legislation, the law made general regulations as to night-work, which is defined as work performed between the hours of 9 P.M. and 6 A.M. As a rule, special permission is required for night-work, except with regard to adult workers in continuous trades. The provisions as to hours of labour and night-work do not apply to adults employed in stores and ware- houses, building works and yards, wharves, loading, and unloading steamships and analogous occupations, or to those employed in handicraft workshops not using mechanical power; nor are adults employed in paper, cellulose and wood-pulp factories, in which work is continuous, affected by the new provision.
Sweden. A new law for the protection of workpeople, dated 1912, consolidated, completed, and superseded all laws and regulations previously enacted for safeguarding workpeople against accident and other risks of employment, with the exception of (l) the law of Nov. 1909, forbidding the employment of women on night-work in certain trades; (2) the decree of Dec. 1897, regarding the employ- ment of children in public exhibitions; and (3) the decree of Dec. 1896, for the prevention of " phossy jaw." New provisions for re- ducing risk of accidents were laid down with special reference to the testing of steam boilers, vats, etc., liable to explode. Among new provisions for ensuring healthy conditions of work may be men- tioned the increase of the minimum air-space in workrooms from 247 to 353 cub. ft. per worker. The provisions affecting minors were of a wider character than those contained in the former law regarding these employees. The old law had reference only to those employed in factories or in analogous occupations, whereas the new law was extended to occupations other than those conducted in factories. The age-limit for minors of both sexes imposed by the previous law was 12 years. This was now raised to 13 years for boys and 14 for girls. The old limit was retained for employment other than in factories, e.g. in handicrafts and in shops. The age of minors em- ployed in mines or quarries was advanced from 14 to 15 years. In addition, the hours of employment of young persons were more com- pletely regulated than formerly.
Spain. By an Act dated July 1912, the employment of women during the night-time in factories or workshops is declared to be illegal in Spain. " Night-time," within the meaning of the Act, covers a period of not less than 1 1 consecutive hours, in which must be comprised the time between 9 P.M. and 5 A.M. The foregoing prohibition does not apply (a) in cases of force majeure, (b) in agricul- tural enterprises, or in trades in which perishable materials are used, provided, as regards the latter, that their loss cannot be avoided without resort to night-work. By a royal decree dated April 1919, work is forbidden in bakehouses, factories and other places where bread is made for a period of 6 consecutive hours in each 24, which period must fall between 8 P.M. and 5 A.M.
Austria. A new law of Dec. 1911 amended the law of 1884 in respect to the employment of women and children in mines. By a law of Feb. 1911, the employment of women and girls between the hours of 8 P.M. and 5 A.M. is prohibited in any industrial establish- ment in Austria in which more than 10 workpeople are employed (in the case of raw sugar factories,. the law was not to come into operation till 1915). Furthermore, every woman or girl must be granted not less than II consecutive hours of rest at night. If, however, work is done in shifts of not more than 8 hours, this 1 1- hour rest period may commence at 10 P.M. in the case of women over 16 years of age. Special provision is made for unforeseen circum- stances, seasonal trades and trades where raw materials are subject to rapid deterioration. It was reported in 1919 that a new Act containing similar provisions, and including also young persons, came into force in German Austria as from June of that year.
