in the later years of the igth and the early years of the aoth century that Socialism is not solely, or even mainly, a political movement, but at least equally an industrial movement, aiming at a fundamental transformation not simply in the ownership, but also in the control and administration of industry, and in the motives upon which the industrial system depends. This is, indeed, to some extent a harking back to earlier conceptions of Socialism, such as those of Robert Owen in Great Britain and of Louis Blanc in France. It has resulted in a far closer affiliation between the Socialists of all schools, " right wing," " left wing " and "centre" alike, and the trade-union movement; and the struggles between the rival schools of Socialism now largely re- produce themselves in the industrial sphere, as the various Socialist sections seek to influence the policy and to secure the allegiance of the trade-union organizations. This is true to a less extent of the cooperative movement; but it is becoming in- creasingly true in this case also.
Based, as it is, mainly upon the organized working-class move- ment, Socialism has necessarily, to a large extent, an economic basis; but it is important to realize that a great deal of its driv- ing force comes from the fact that it is not only an economic movement, but also a movement based on certain clear and def- inite ideas which are largely shared by Socialists of all schools.
The differences between Socialists are. far more differences as to method than differences as to ideal. Thus all Socialists are agreed that the carrying-on of industry on a basis of private profit produces anti-social results, and that the idea that the interests of the whole are best served by the enlightened pursuit by each private citizen of his own interests is fundamentally wrong. Although they differ widely as to the structure which a Socialist society should assume, and as to the forms of industrial administration which would best express the new community spirit, Socialists are agreed in demanding that all important in- dustries and services should pass over from private hands into some form of social ownership and control, whether into the hands of the State or of local authorities, or of self-governing guilds, or of the cooperative movement, or of other forms of organization designed to express the communal spirit. They are agreed in be- lieving the individual ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange to be undesirable, and in holding that both the extent and the character of production should be deter- mined, not by any anticipation of individual profit, but by con- siderations of social need. Moreover, all Socialists insist that with the change from the system of private ownership and con- trol in industry to social ownership and control must go a change in the motives which operate in the industrial system. They hold that, if industries and services are conducted under forms of organization designed in the interests of the whole community, the motive of public service, which is at present thwarted and inhibited by the existence of capitalism, will be brought into play, with the result that the members of the community will be more ready to render willing and efficient service. They are also increasingly of the opinion, first strongly urged by the Guild Socialists, that in order to bring this motive of social service into play it will be essential to democratize the indus- trial as well as the political system, by providing for a large measure of self-government in industry by the " workers by hand and brain."
The charge used to be brought against the Socialist parties and groups of dwelling almost exclusively upon the economic concerns of Society, and of caring little or nothing for other questions of social and political policy. This charge can hardly be made nowadays; for the Socialist and Labour parties of the world have in almost all cases been led to formulate inclusive programmes and policies, and to take an active part in further- ing social reorganization in all spheres of both national and international policy. Perhaps the best exposition of the national and international policy of Socialism of the constitutional type is contained in the pamphlet Labour and the New Social Order, issued by the British Labour party in 1918. This pam- phlet has had an important international influence. The Com- munist wing, more fully preoccupied with questions of revolution
than with plans for reform under the existing system, has not issued any quite comparable declaration of its aims; but the new Communist Manifesto of the Third (Moscow) International furnishes the clearest indication of its aims and policy as an in- ternational movement.
BOOKS ON SOCIALISM. A., General. There is no really good ac- count of Socialism as a whole. The handiest text-books in English are: T. Kirkup, History of Socialism (new ed. revised by Edward R. Pease, 1913); and Werner Sombart, Socialism and the Social Movement (translated by M. Epstein (1909); R. C. K. Ensor, Mod- ern Socialism (1907), is a useful collection of extracts from writings of Socialists of all countries. Max Beer's History of British Socialism (2 vols., 1919 and 1920) is indispensable. For the growth of the movement in various countries see Robert Hunter, Socialists at Work (1908), and the Labour International Handbook, prepared by the Labour Research Department (1921). Of books hostile to Social- ism the best known are 0. D. Skelton, Socialism: a Critical Analysis (1911), and W. H. Mallock, A Critical Examination of Socialism (1907); Hartley Withers, Tlie Case for Capitalism (1920), may also be consulted. Other useful general books include: E. Bernstein, Evolutionary Socialism (1909); Robert Blatchford, Merrie England (1895); Fabian Society, Fabian Essays (1889); J. Bruce Glasier, The Meaning of Socialism (1920); Laurence Gronlund, The Coop- erative Commonwealth, edited by Bernard Shaw (1891); J. Ramsay MacDonald, Socialism, Criticaland Constructive (1921) : William Mor- ris and E. Belfort Bax, Socialism: its Growth and Outcome (1893); Bertrand Russell, Roads to Freedom (1918); Emile Vandervelde, Collectivism and Industrial Evolution (1907) ; Le Socialisme centre I'Etat (1919) ; W. E. Walling, Socialism as it is (1912) ; H. G. Wells, New Worlds for Old (1908, rev. 1914). See also the innumerable pamphlets published by the various Socialist bodies.
B., Marxism. Karl Marx's Capital (English translation, 3 vols. 1887-1909) is, of course, the foundation of most modern Socialist thinking. Of Marx's other works the most important for Socialist theory are: The Communist Manifesto, written in collaboration with Friedrich Engels (1847) ; The Critique of Political Economy (English translation, vol. ii. 1907); The Civil War in France (1871, reissued 1921); Revolution and Counter-Revolution or Germany in 1848 (Eng. 1896); The Poverty of Philosophy (Eng. 1900).- Of the works of Engels the most important are : Socialism, Utopian and Scientific (Eng. 1892), and Landmarks of Scientific Socialism (Eng. 1907). Karl Kautsky, the leading exponent of political Marxism in Germany, can be best studied in The Erfurt Program (Eng. 1910); The Social Revolution (Eng. 1902); and in his attack on Bolshevism, Terrorism and Communism (Eng. 1920). For the Communist exposition of Marxism see N. Lenin, The Slate and Revolution (Eng. 1919), and other works. Of books on Marx and Marxism the most important are: Max Beer, The Life and Teaching of Karl Marx (Eng. 1921); Achille Loria, Karl Marx (Eng. 1920), and for a hostile criticism: E. von Bohm-Bawerk, Karl Marx and the Close of his System (Eng. 1898). Georges Sorel's La Decomposition du Marxisme (1908) and Benedetto Croce's Historic Materialism and the Economics of Karl Marx (Eng. 1914) are important detached studies. A much fuller bibliography will be found in What to Read on Social and Economic Subjects (Fabian Society, new ed. 1020) ; and reference should be made to the bibliographies at the end of the articles on COMMUNISM, GUILD SOCIALISM, SYNDICALISM. There is, of course, a very large literature of the subject in almost every European language.
(G. D. H. C.)
SODEN, HERMANN, FREIHERR VON (1852-1914), German biblical scholar (see 25.339), died Jan. 15 1914.
SOLDENE, EMILY (1840-1912), English singer and actress, was born at Islington, London, in 1840. She had made her debut in 1864 on the concert stage, and in 1871 appeared in Genevieve de Brabant, her favourite role, and in La Fille de Madame Angot in 1872. Her successes were mainly in opera-bouffe, and she retired young from the stage. She published one novel, Young Mrs. Staples (1896), and My Theatrical and Musical Recollections (1897). She died in London April 8 1912.
SOLF, WILHELM (1862- ), German colonial politician, and, at the time of the revolution, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, was born Oct. 5 1862 in Berlin. He made a special study of Sanskrit and Oriental languages, and, after a long sojourn at Calcutta, returned to Germany in order to study political science. He then entered the German Colonial Service and, after having been employed in a judicial post in German East Africa, was sent to Samoa, first as president of the municipal council (1899) at Apia under the old "condominium" of Great Britain, Germany and America and afterwards as governor of German Samoa (1900). In 1911 he was appointed German colonial secretary and achieved considerable success in the reform of the German colonial administration. When Prince Max of Baden's Ministry
