uted to that age, are now known to be Tertiary. Certain of the coalmeasures in Advent Bay prove to be of Cretaceous and not Tertiary age and these Cretaceous beds probably appear also below theTertiary beds in Lowe Sound.
An extinct volcano and several hot springs with a temperature of 75° to 82° F. were discovered in Bock Bay, off Wood Bay, in 1910. The volcano seems to date from a later period than any othervolcanic manifestation found in Spitsbergen. Research has proved that dislocation has played a great part in determining the mainfeatures of the fiord system, especially in Ice Fjord where thecourse of the fjord has been decided by great faults.
Climate.—From the meteorological data now available, including eight years' records from Green Harbour, the following means maybe given: Cape Thordsen, Jan. 0·3° F., July 39·9° F. ; Green Harbour, Jan. 6·7°, July 39·7°; Axel I. (Lowe Sound), Jan. 1·6°, July 40·3°; S.E. of Edge I., Jan. 1·5°, Aug. 37·4°; Bear I., Feb. 10·4°, Aug. 40·1. The mean annual precipitation at Green Harbour is 11·6 in.; Prince Charles Foreland has more and the interior of Spitsbergen less.
Exploration.—There is little doubt that the land called Svalbard ("cool coast") in the Icelandic annals, discovered by Norsemen in 1194, was really Spitsbergen. If Spitsbergen was forgotten by the Norsemen it was possibly rediscovered by Russian hunters from the White Sea in the 15th or 16th centuries or at least previous to Barents' rediscovery in 1596.
Recent exploration in Spitsbergen has been devoted mainly to geological work, largely with economic ends in view, and detailed cartographical survey. A German expedition under Lt. Schroeder-Stranz in 1912 came to grief on the N. coast, after the loss of the leader. Half the staff were lost and the survivors were rescued by Norwegians under A. Staxrud.
The principal survey work has been done by Norwegians working in small parties every summer since 1906, assisted by grants from the Norwegian State. These parties have been successively commanded by G. Isachsen, A. Staxrud and A. Hoel, and have mapped in detail the western side of the mainland from the N. coast to the South Cape. The work is expedited by the use of photogrammetric methods to assist triangulation. The detailed survey of Prince Charles Foreland has been completed by Dr. W. S. Bruce and assistants who have also mapped the area between Klaas Billen and Sassen bays. Swedish surveyors have mapped the land round Lowe Sound and Braganza Bay. The Prince of Monaco has shown continued interest in Spitsbergen exploration by giving assistance to several explorers, including the Swiss H. Stoll who in 1913 crossed the unknown country between Lowe Sound and Agardh Bay on Stor Fjord. Lt. W. Filchner in 1910 surveyed the glaciated region between Temple Bay and Mohn Bay. In 1920 J. M. Wordie scaled several of the highest peaks on the W. coast, including Mounts Monaco, Rudmose and Barents. Hydrographic surveys have been carried out by G. Isachsen and others on the W. coast and in Green Harbour, by W. S. Bruce in Foreland Sound, Klaas Billen and Sassen bays and Stor Fjord. Swedish Government surveyors have been at work in Lowe Sound. Oceanographical work has been done in Spitsbergen waters by Dr. F. Nansen. The Norwegian Government has maintained a wireless telegraph station and meteorological observatory in Green Harbour since 1911. A German meteorological station was founded in Eleltoft Haven, Cross Bay, in 1910 as the outcome of a visit by Prince Henry of Prussia and Count Zeppelin when experiments with dirigible balloons were conducted. This station was abandoned in Sept. 1914. In 1920 Norway opened a new meteorological and geophysical station for aerological and geomagnetic research. Besides the Norwegian state wireless station at Green Harbour, there were in 1921 seven others (4 Norwegian, 2 English and one Swedish). In Aug. 1921 a Norwegian Church was consecrated at Longyear City.
Mining.—The development of the coal-fields has proceeded rapidly, greatly stimulated during the war by the scarcity and high price of coal in Scandinavia. The coal-mine in Longyear Valley, Advent Bay, which had been under American ownership since 1905, was sold in 1916 to Norwegians who have been assiduous in their export. Several other Norwegian mines have started, notably in Kings Bay, Green Harbour and Hjorth Haven in Advent Bay. Swedish mines were opened in Lowe Sound (Braganza Bay) in 1917. There are Russian mines in Green Harbour and Dutch mines at Cape Boheman. British enterprise, hampered by war conditions, revived in 1919 in the coal-bearing areas in Klaas Billen Bay and Lowe Sound. By 1920 practically all the coal-bearing areas were annexed by one or other company and at least five mines had reached the export stage. The total amount of coal exported in 1919 was 90,000 tons, all of which went to Norwegian ports, including some to Narvik for the Swedish railways. The coal exported so far is of Tertiary and Cretaceous age and proves to be good steam coal. Bituminous coal of Carboniferous age will soon be available for export. Jurassic coal occurs but is of poor quality and no longer worked. Mining continues throughout the year but the export season at present is from June to Sept. The largest mining camp is Longyear City in Advent Bay, housing some 400 men in summer and 300 in winter. No other minerals besides coal are as yet exploited commercially, but large deposits of iron ore (36% iron) and gypsum are known, as well as smaller deposits of zinc and asbestos. Signs of oil have been reported. A Norwegian company is exporting coal from Bear Island. The approximate area (in sq. m.) of estates owned by various nationals in Spitsbergen is as follows: British 6,500, Norwegian 900, Swedish 400, Russian 60 and Dutch 10. Whaling was revived in Spitsbergen waters in 1905, abandoned in 1912 and restarted during the World War. The only station is now in Green Harbour. Winter fur-hunting is pursued by a few Norwegians.
Political History.—The question of political control had been discussed since about 1870, mainly by Norway, Sweden and Russia, without any solution being found. Spitsbergen therefore occupied the curious position of being terra nullius. In 1907, however, Norway again opened negotiations for an international conference to decide the question of sovereignty, and one was held at Christiania in July–Aug. 1910, followed by another in 1912, without definite result. In July 1914 a conference which included also representatives of Britain, France, Belgium, the United States, Holland and Germany tried to devise a form of administration consistent with the country remaining a terra nullius, but the outbreak of the World War put an end to the discussions. In 1919 the Supreme Council conferred the sovereignty of Spitsbergen, including Bear I., on Norway. The signatories of the treaty were Great Britain and the British Dominions, France, Italy, the United States, Japan, Holland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden. The rights and territories of nationals other than those of Norway are safeguarded, and Norway is not allowed to show preferential treatment to Norwegian mining companies or to levy taxes except for expenditure on the administration. Disputed claims to estates were to be decided by a neutral commission presided over by a Dane.
Bibliography—The literature is in the main scattered in periodical publications: specially useful are Ymer (Stockholm), Videnskapsselskapets skrifter (Christiania), Naturen (Bergen), Scottish Geographical Magazine and Résultats des Campagnes Scientifiques, par Albert I., Prince de Monaco, vol. xl., xli., and xlv. Two modern works giving recent history and economic developments are Spitsbergen: its exploration, hunting and mineral riches, by R. N. Rudmose Brown (1920), and Spitsbergens Natur og Historie, by G. Holmsen (1911). "Fra Ishavet" by G. Isachsen in Del Norske Geografiske Selskabs Aarbok (1916–19) gives much information about Norwegianhunters. The Dutch Discovery and Mapping of Spitsbergen 1596–1829, by F. C. Wieder (Amsterdam, 1919), has many reproductionsof early maps. The meteorological observations at Green Harbour are published annually in Jahrbuch des Norwegischen Meteorologischen Instituts (Christiania). Mit Zeppelin nach Spitzbergen, by A. Miethe and H. Hergesell (Berlin 1911), is noteworthy for the excellence of its illustrations, including colour plates. Some of the results of the Norwegian surveys are collected in Expédition Isachsen au Spitsberg 1909–10. Résultats scientifiques (Christiania 1916). The geomorphology of Spitsbergen is explained by G. de Geer, "On the physiographical evolution of Spitsbergen" in Geog. Annaler, I. (Stockholm 1919). (R.N.R.B.)
SPORTS AND GAMES.—The tendency towards "internationalism" in competitive sports and games had been rapidly growing in intensity, partly as a result of the establishment of the Olympic Games, from 1896 onwards; but it was rudely interrupted by the World War, and conditions were still unfavourable up to 1921 for more than a limited renewal. The decade from 1911 to 1921 offers no proper material, therefore, for a consistent history in this field, by way of supplement to the separate articles in the earlier volumes of this Encyclopædia; nor, indeed, in the case of most sports and games, as carried on in 1910–21, had there been more than minor changes, either in equipment, methods or rules. So far as British and American interests, however, are concerned, the chief statistics, as regards the main events in the more important sports and games, are recorded in the following sections.
