of Persia. Mosquitoes, including the Anopheles varieties, are very
numerous, and insect life is abundant. Malaria is very common,
and few residents escape infection. The medical conditions prevail-
ing here are those which are found in other damp relaxing climates
with no great extremes of temperature. Tuberculosis is fairly com-
mon, and respiratory diseases such as bronchitis, pneumonia and
influenza are prevalent. There is great overcrowding in the towns,
and owing to the lack of adequate sanitation water-borne diseases
such as dysentery, enteric fever and cholera are prevalent. Typhus
and smallpox and the ordinary infectious fevers are common. Heat
stroke does not occur, but owing to the high humidity the climate is
very oppressive and trying to European residents.
The plateau region of Persia, occupying almost the whole area of the country, is divided into a mountainous portion which covers the whole of the western half of Persia, the general level being from 3,000 to 6,000 ft. above the sea, while the remaining portion of the plateau is chiefly desert and its general level is from 2,000 to 3,000 ft. above the sea. The climate of the Persian plateau is temperate, the summer temperatures not exceeding those of England. The winter temperature depends largely on the altitude, and extremes of cold are experienced. The atmosphere is invigorating and healthful, but in spite of this diseases of various kinds are prevalent owing to the lack of sanitary precautions. Water-borne diseases such as enteric, dysentery and cholera are prevalent, and this is largely due to the extraordinary fondness of the Persians for conveying water through numerous channels both above and underground in the towns and villages. The water usually comes from mountain springs and is clear and sparkling, but becomes contaminated in the course of distribution. No water should ever be drunk from these channels without previous boiling or chlorination; the remarks made in the article on MESOPOTAMIA relating to protection from water-borne diseases apply with equal force to Persia. Prophylactic inoculation with T.A.B. vaccine is essential as a protection against enteric. Malaria is very common owing to the breeding of mosquitoes in the various streams and water channels. The malaria is very frequently of the malignant type, and is often not controlled by the oral administration of quinine. The intramuscular or intravenous administration of the drug should always be adopted in such cases for the first few days of treatment, after which a full course of treatment by the mouth should be given. It is very remarkable to find malaria so prevalent and of so malignant a type at such a high altitude as that of the Persian plateau.
Overcrowding and herding together of the poorer classes of the population occur especially in the cold months, for housing accom- modation is very insufficient. In consequence of this the common jnfectious fevers and smallpox are prevalent. Tuberculosis and influenza are rife, and the lice-borne diseases, typhus and relapsing fever, are of common occurrence.
A special type of relapsing fever occurs along the Zenjan-Tabriz route, which is spread by a large tick (Argas Persicus) known as the " Mianeh bug," which has a great predilection for foreigners; this disease is very common at Mianeh and resembles clinically the lice- borne relapsing fever.
Eye disease is as common in Persia as Mesopotamia, and is due to the same causes. Sand flies are common and sand-fly fever is of frequent occurrence. Oriental sores are very common and are known by the Persian name " Salek," meaning a year, which is an average time for their duration. Venereal diseases such as gon- orrhoea and syphilis are common amongst the natives.
Diarrhoea! diseases are very common in Persia, being spread by contaminated water, and food infected by dust and flies. These cause a very high infantile mortality amongst the natives. Neuras- thenia and mental breakdown sometimes affect residents in Persia, the high altitude of the plateau being probably a causative factor.
In consequence of the Civil War and the Turkish and Russian Invasions of 1914-7 much destruction of the dwellings of the poorer inhabitants occurred, and the animal transport so essential for the conveyance of food was greatly reduced. The food supplies were largely used up, and a serious famine occurred in 1917-8. Starvation carried off large numbers of the poorer inhabitants, and those debili- tated by lack of nourishment and insufficient clothing became ready victims to such diseases as malignant malaria, dysentery, typhus, etc. (W. H. W.)
PERSIAN GULF. The term " Persian Gulf " is, strictly speak- ing, restricted to the landlocked sea which extends in a south- easterly direction from the mouth of the Shatt al 'Arab 460 m. to the mountain mass of the promontory of Oman, terminating in Ras Musandam, but, for the purpose of this article, it will be considered to include the Gulf of Oman to which it is joined by the Strait of Ormuz, 29 m. wide. The Gulf itself has an average width of 1 20 miles. It is tidal, spring tides rising about 9 ft. ; the water is somewhat salter than the Indian Ocean, and seldom exceeds 10 fathoms in depth; with the exception of the Shatt al 'Arab, the Jarrahi and the Hindiyan rivers, which mingle their waters with those of the sea at the W. end of the Gulf, all the streams that flow into it are so salt as to be undrinkable. The xxxn.-j
Euphrates and Tigris have within historical times silted up their mouths to an extent that has materially altered the coast-line of the Gulf and these rivers seem destined in the future to unite El Hasa to Fao, just as in the past they produced the fertile plains of Mesopotamia. The Persian Gulf is lacking in good harbours, anchorage being mostly shallow and exposed.
N. Coast. 'From the Indian Ocean the Gulf of Oman is entered approximately where Persian territory begins at the tiny port of Gwattar. From Gwattar the coast-line, running W., first to the Strait of Ormuz, next along the N. shore of the Persian Gulf, and finally to the mouth of the Shatt al 'Arab, 1 is nominally under the exclusive control of the Persian Government. The inhabitants of this tract are Persians or Arabs who by domicile and intermarriage with Persians have lost nearly all their racial and most of their social characteristics, but retain a dialect of Arabic as their mother tongue.
5. Coast. The S. coast on the Gulf of Oman may be regarded as commencing from Ras el Hadd; it extends to the Ras Musandam. This coast is under the nominal suzerainty of the Sultan of Muscat, the principal ports from E. to W. being Sur, Muscat, Matra, Khabura and Sohar. From Ras Musandam westwards the Arabian shore is inhabited by tribes of Arab origin, which are independent and in treaty relation with Great Britain.
Up to 1913 the Turks exercised the right of suzerainty over the maritime districts of El Hasa and Hofuf, and claimed it in Qatar and Kuwait. The Emir of Nejd, 'Abd el 'Aziz ibn Sa'ud, ejected them from the first-named districts; the war has put an end to their claims elsewhere in the Gulf. The Trucial chiefs of the Arabian coast hold sway between the peninsulas of Musan- dam and Qatar. From E. to W. their headquarters run as fol- lows: Ras el Kheima, Umm el Qaiwein, 'Ajman, Sharja, Dibai, Abu Dhabi, Qatar. The Sheikh of Bahrein exercises no authority over the mainland, which from the S. extremity of the bay in which Bahrein lies to Jebel Manifa N. of Qatif is recognized as within the territories of the Emir of Nejd (see ARABIA).
The friendly attitude of Ibn Sa'ud on the outbreak of war with Turkey made it imperative that the British Government should come to a definite understanding with him, and he was recognized by a treaty dated Dec. 28 1915, as independent ruler of Nejd and El Hasa, and given a limited dynastic guarantee, with a promise of support in case of foreign aggression. Great Britain assumed control of his foreign relations outside Arabia. He on his part undertook not to alienate any territory to a foreign Power, except with the consent of the British Government.
Shortly afterwards a treaty was made with the Chief of Qatar, whereby his position was assimilated to that of the Trucial chiefs. The British Government undertook in addition to afford their good offices to the Sheikh in the event of unprovoked ag- gression by land.
Climate. The prevalent winds in the Gulf follow the configuration of the coast, i.e. N.W., known as the shamal, and S.E., known as the qaus. The former wind, rising often to a gale in a few hours and falling as suddenly, is foretold by no change in the barometer. With the qaus the reverse is the case. This wind is much dreaded by native manners as it strikes nearly all the sheltered anchorages.
Rainfall varies from 6 in. to 9 in. at the W. end of the Gulf to a negligible quantity at Muscat. As is to be expected, the rainfall on the peninsula is somewhat greater than on the Arab coast. The influence of the S.W. monsoon, which is marked at Muscat, is scarcely noticeable in the Persian Gulf proper, though recent upper- air investigations conducted at Bagdad give some reason to think that the effects of the monsoon can be observed even there.
The temperature at the W. end of the Gulf varies from a minimum of 4 or 5 F. below freezing point at night in winter to a maximum of 1 15 F. in the shade during a few days in summer; the humidity of the air at Muscat is greater and the climate is, in consequence, much more trying, but even here a maximum of 109 F. has been recorded, the lowest minimum being 55. Snow has been known to fall at Bushire. (A. T. W.)
Medical Conditions. The medical conditions prevailing in the Persian Gulf are largely determined by the peculiarly trying climatic influences to which the inhabitants are exposed. The Arabian desert forms the W. and S. shores, which are almost uninhabited except for the small centres of population around its few widely separated towns, Kuwait, noted for its pearl fisheries, in the N.W. corner, being the most important of these. The E.
J The W. frontier of Persia was finally demarcated in 1914, a few months before the outbreak of war, by a mixed Anglo-Russian Perso- Turkish commission.
