Figure 1.4 — Effects of ionospheric density on radio waves.
Layer Density
Figure 1-4 shows the relationship between radio waves and ionization density. Each ionized layer has a middle region of relatively dense ionization with less intensity above and below. As a radio wave enters a region of increasing ionization, a velocity increase causes it to bend back toward the earth. In the highly dense middle region, refraction occurs more slowly because the ionization density is uniform. As the wave enters the upper less dense region, the velocity of the upper part of the wave decreases and the wave is bent away from the earth.
Frequency
The lower the frequency of a radio wave, the more rapidly the wave is refracted by a given degree of ionization. Figure 1-5 shows three separate waves of differing frequencies entering the ionosphere at the same angle. You can see that the 5-MHz wave is refracted quite sharply, while the 20-MHz wave is refracted less sharply and returns to earth at a greater distance than the 5-MHz wave. Notice that the 100-MHz wave is lost into space. For any given ionized layer, there is a frequency, called the escape point, at which energy transmitted directly upward will escape into space. The maximum frequency just below the escape point is called the critical frequency. In this example, the 100-MHz wave’s frequency is greater than the critical frequency for that ionized layer.
Figure 1-5. — Frequency versus refraction and distance.
The critical frequency of a layer depends upon the layer’s density. If a wave passes through a
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