546 both of tragedy and comedy; Freytag also, and Prutz, are original dramatic authors. The dramas of Christian Grabbe, full of eccentricity, but with a certain wihl power, originated a movement resembling to some extent that of the “ Sturin und Draiig” poets. It-s chief representative was Hebbel, a writer eiidow'ed with imaginative gifts, but who marred every play by afleetation and extravagance. 1" reiherr von Miinch—Bellinghauseii, known as Friedrich Hahn, author of Der Fechler von Ifaveima (“The Gladi- G-Elt3[.~NY ' wards gave evidence of disinterested imagination in two narrative poems, Giittin and Zeno. The lyrics of Emmanuel Geibel, some of which are also political, with a conservative tendency, have found favour with nearly all classes 5 they reveal a gentle and refined spirit, and are written with something of Uhl-and’s grace. Among the most distin- guished contemporary writers is Robert Hamerling, whose poetry is remarkable for the boldness of its conceptions and its almost vehement passion. Since the middle of the 18th century Germany has never 1-‘oi-in ator of Ravenna”), and Mosenthal, author of Deborah, been without writers of deep thought and vast researcli;“<'1'l"= achieved distinction by aiming at something higher than Paul Lindau is the author of some mere stage effect. refined comedies, and Adolf Vi1br-andt has written both comedies and tragedies which meet the taste of Vienna. Charlotte Birch-Pfeiffer and lloderieh Benedix were prolific writers of plays with the sort of merit that belongs to an intimate knowledcre of the technical necessities of the stage. and in her supreme writers—iii Lessing, Goetl1c,m‘T":" I‘. Schiller, and Heine—these qualities have been asso- ciated with a feeling for artistic finish which has not been surpassed in England or even in France. But the tendency of German authors beneath the highest rank has been to neglect the laws of expression. Thus there is in Lyrical Many recent writers have attempted lyrical and narrative Germany an extraordinary quantity of literature which, aI1t!n3r- poetry, seine of them with sufficient power to maintain although the result of great labour, and full of ideas, niakcs worthily the traditions of German literature. From about intolerable demands on the patience of readers. The lack -3. 1830 onwards, a group of Austrian poets, more or less political in tendency, commanded the respect of all Germans. The chief was Count von Aiiersperg, who assumed the name of Anastasius Griin. His first important work was Walks of a l'ienna Poet, published in 1831, but his fame rests chiefly on two volumes of lyrics issued some years later. He had enthusiastic faith in the future, and expresses his hopes in verses full of colour, soinetinies brilliant and effective. Another Austrian writer, Nicholas Strehlenau, generally called Leiiau, gives powerful utterance in several poems to the sorrows of a deeply melancholy nature. Meissner and Hartmann, Bohemian poets, have a considerable reputation, the latter as a writer of great artistic merit, the former as a poet of vivid imagination and free sympathies. Leopold Schefer was for along time a I popular poet, and the genial optimism of his chief book, the Laienbrevier, is interesting because of the contrast it presents to the pessimist tone of more recent writers. Before the revolutionary movements of 1848 a number of writers attempted to force poetry into the ser- vice of freedom. Of these one of the best known is Herwegh. He advocated liberty with a vehemence that won for him immense popularity, but the interest of his writings is rather historical than literary. Ferdinand Freiligrath was of a more truly poetic temperament. His poems, although without delicacy, have graphic force, and in his earlier writings he displayed a remarkable talent for reproducing the gorgeous colours of tropical landscape. Other poets who have made verse a means of awakening in the popular mind a passion for political justice are Hoffinann von F allersleben, who has a considerable com- mand of musical expression, and Franz Dingelstedt, a ver- satile writer who has done good work as a novelist and dramatist. Gottschall, already named as a dramatist and an of measure and precision has in many cases deprived of nearly all value powers of iniagination, reason, and indus- try, which would have made the literary fortune of a Frenchman. This deficiency of style is in some degree explained by the fact that an undue proportion of German literature has hitherto been addressed, not to the public, but to specialists, who naturally concern themselves more with substance than with form. During the present generation there have been syniptonis of a remarkable change. Ever since the Germans began to feel that they are one people, and to strive after political unity, an iii- creasiiig number of scholars and thinkers have displayed an ambition to extend their influence, while several imagini- tive writers have consciously appealed to the nation as it whole. The inevitable result has been that they have aimed at more met-hodical arrangement. than their predecessors-, and have cultivated greater force, simplicity, and directness of speech. Nothing has fostered this wholesome tendency so much as the growing respect of the nation for the great masters of its language, a respect indicated by the new edi- tions of their writings which appear year after year. The higher class of poets, dramatists, and novelists have also profited by the deepening conviction that the function of art is not to battle with practical evils, but to create a world of ideal beauty in which the mind may find refuge from the perplexities of real life. Bibliograplcg/.—Koberstein, G’r1m(lrz'ss rlrr (lrutscIi4_'n Z'a!ium/I- l-itcrrztzu; (‘mi-viniis, Gcst-lticlilc (lcr poctischcn 1'a!i'o7iall2'tcralur Ju- Dcutsclmi; Vilinar, Vorlr_'siuL_r/cu iibcr (lie G'escIu'rhlc (lcr ¢l_riLl.x~r/17,: .Z(zti'o:m.ll[lc)'atiu' ; Goc-deke, Grzmrlriss zur Gcschiclzlc dcr (lruI.s-4-In Id I)i'chliuig; Kurz, G'rsc/cichfc dcr zlcutsclwn Litcratur; llcttiier, Li'trr(tturgrschicliIr clcs 189" J[l]l7']l1I.7l(l£‘l'fS; Julian Seliiniilt, Hr- schirlilc (lcs _I/cz'stigcn Lrbriis 2'/L I)::ufschl(Lml T071. Lcz'bn1':: bis a1{/ LI-s::in._«;'s Tod, and Gcschichtc dcr clrulschcn Lilcmtur im 19”‘ J«tlz7'hu.n.dcrt ; Gottschall, Gesclticlrlc (lcr dcutsclicn 1'’a.tionaIlL'tc7'rIl2(r in dcr crstcn Ilcilftc dcs 190" Jahrluuulcrts; Gostwick and Harrison, historian of literature, began as a political poet, but after- Outlines cf G'crmmL Litcmtzu-c. (J. SI.) Ixonx. Academies, 472. Anninius, 475. Mai-la Theresa, 503; ' Berengar of Lombardy, Bi-eitenfeld, battle of, Carlsbad decrees, 50-5. Adelaide, queen, 483. Administration, 463. Army, statistics of, 467; ancient, 474. shattered by Napoleon, 504; I‘russia‘s jealousy Catholic league, 500. Census statistics, 4-‘-5. Cliiiinisso, 542. 500. Brcmer Beitiiigc, 533. 4:53. Bei-lin assembly, 507. Adolf of Nassau, 493. Agnes, empress, 487. Agriculture, 451. Albert I. of Austria, 493. Arndt, l-lrnst Moritz, 543. Amdt, Johann, 529. Arnim, Achim von, 542. Amulf, 481. of, 505, 508; revolu- tion of 1848, 507; war with Prussia, 511. Ballads, early, 524. Bertliold the monk, 526. Bibliography, 472, 514, 546. Biography, writers on. Breinen, trade of, 463. Breteslaus of Bohemia, 487. ' Breweries, 451. Charleiiiagne, 47s. (‘liarlcs Martel, 477. Charles the Great, 478. Albert ii., 496. .-scliaffenburg, concordat Banking, 466. 54;. Brockcs. poet. 531’. Charles the Bn1d.450- Mcmanni, 476. of, 496. Barbarossa, 4S9. Bismarck, 510, 514. Bund, the, 509. Charles the Fat, 4‘~'l. Alemannian language, Asphalt, 453. Barditus, 522. Boehme, Jacob, 52'). Biirger, 540. Charles IV., 495. 519. Attila, 476. Basedow, 54o_ Boniface, st, 473, Burgundians, 475. Charles V., 497. Alsace taken by France, Aue, Hartmann von. 523. Bavaria, 476 ; incorpo- Book trade, 472. Burgundy bequeathed to Charles 'I., 502. 502; restored to Ger- Augsburg confession,498; I rated by Charlemagne, Bouvlnes, battle of, 491. Conrad II., 487. Charles 'II., 503. many, 513. peace of, 499. 479. Brandenburg granted to Czesar, Julius, 474. Chiefs, ancient, 474. Animals. 451. Austria erected a dueli_v, Bavarian language, 517. Frederick of Ilohcn- Canals, 460. Cliilderlc, 476. Anno, archbishop, 4-57. Area, 447. 490; wars of, with the Turks, 491:; under ' Bee culture, 4-32. Beetioot sugar, 4.51. zollern, 495. Brandt, Sebastian, 5'27. Cunossa, Ilenry 1V.'s penance at, 438. Chivalry, age of, 4'32;
literature of, 523.