J U L J U L 771 dialectical variations. No hard and fast rule can therefore possibly be laid down for the decipherment of Chinese transcriptions of Sanskrit words, and the effect of this impossibility was felt though not recognized by Julien, who in order to make good his rule was occasionally obliged to suppose that wrong characters had by mistake been introduced into the texts. His Indian studies led to a controversy with M. Reinaud, which was certainly not free from the gall of bitterness. Among the many subjects to which he turned his attention were the native industries of China, and his work on the Histoire et fabrication de la porcelains Chinoise is still, and is likely to remain, a standard work on the subject. In another volume he also published an account of the Industries anciennes et modernes de I empire Chinois (1869), translated from native authori ties. In the intervals of more serious undertakings he translated the San tseu King, or " Le Livre des trois mots " ; Thsien tseu iven, or " Le Livre de mille mots " ; " Les deux cousines " ; " Nouvelles Chinoises " ; the Piny chan ling yen, " Les deux jeunes filles lettrees " ; and the " Dialoghi Cinesi," Ji-tck ang ISeou-t eou-koa. The last work of importance which proceeded from his pen was his Syntaxe nouvelle de la lanyue Chinoise (18G9). In these volumes he gives the results of his study of the language, and has collected in them a vast array of facts and of idiomatic expressions. A more scientific arrangement and treatment of his subject would have added much to the value of this work, which, however, contains a mine of material which amply repays exploration. One great secret by which Julien acquired his grasp of the Chinese language was, as we have said, his methodical collection of phrases and idiomatic expressions. Whenever in the course of his reading he met with a new phrase or expression, he en tered it on a card which took its place in regular order in a long series of boxes. At his death, which took place on the 20th February 1873, he left, it is said, 250,000 of such cards, about the fate of which, however, little seems to be known. In politics Julien was im perialist, and in 1863 hj was made a commander of the legion of honour in recognition of the services he had rendered to literature during the empire. (R. K. D.) JULIERS. See JULICH. JULIUS I., pope from 337 to 352, was a native of Rome, and was chosen as successor of Marcus after the Roman see had been vacant four months. He is chiefly known by the part which he took in the Arian controversy. After the Eusebians had, at a synod held in Antioch in 341, renewed their deposition of Athanasius, they resolved to send delegates to Constans, emperor of the West, and also to Julius, setting forth the grounds on which they had proceeded. The latter, after expressing an opinion favour able to Athanasius, adroitly invited both parties to lay the case before a synod to be presided over by himself. This proposal, however, the Eastern bishops declined to accept. On his second banishment from Alexandria, Athanasius oame to Rome, and was recognized as a regular bishop by the synod held in 342. It was through the influence of Julius that, at a later date, the council of Sardica in Illyria was held, which was attended only by seventy-six Eastern bishops, who speedily withdrew to Philippopolis and deposed Julius, along with Athanasius and others. The three hundred Western bishops who remained con firmed the previous decisions of the Roman synod ; and by its 3d, 4th and 5th decrees relating to the rights of revision claimed by Julius the council of Sardica perceptibly helped forward the pretensions of the papacy. Julius on his death in April 352 was succeeded by Tiberius. JULIUS II., pope from 1503 to 1513, was born at Savona in 1443. He was the son of a brother of Sixtus IV., his original name being Giuliano della Rovere. By his uncle, who took him under his special charge, he was educated among the Franciscans, and latterly sent to a con vent in La Perouse with the special purpose of obtaining a knowledge of the sciences. He does not appear, however, to have joined the order of St Francis, but to have remained one of the secular clergy until his elevation in 1471 to be bishop of Carpentras, shortly after his uncle succeeded to the papal chair. In the same year he was promoted to be cardinal, taking the same title as that formerly held by his uncle, St Peter ad Vincula. With his uncle he obtained very great influence, and in addition to the archbishopric of Avignon he held no fewer than eight bishoprics. In the capacity of papal legate he was sent in 1480 to France, where he remained four years, and acquitted himself with such ability that he soon acquired a paramount influence in the college of cardinals, an influence which rather increased than diminished during the pontificate of Innocent VIII. A rivalry had, however, gradually grown up between him and Roderigo Borgia, and on the death of Innocent in 1492 Borgia by means of a secret agreement with Ascanio Sforza succeeded in being elected over Delia Rovere by a large majority, under the name of Alexander VI. Delia Rovere at once determined to take refuge at Ostia, and in a few months afterwards went to Paris, where he incited Charles VIII. to undertake the conquest of Naples. Accompanying the young king on his campaign, he entered Rome along with him, and endeavoured to instigate the convocation of a council to inquire into the conduct of the pope with a view to his deposition, but Alexander, having gained a friend in Charles s minister Brigonnet, by the offer of a cardinal s hat succeeded in counterworking the machinations of his enemy. On the death of Alexander in 1503 Delia Rovere supported the candidature of Cardinal Piccolomini of Milan, who was consecrated under the name of Pius III., but was then suffering from an incurable malady, of which he died in little more than a month afterwards. Della Rovere then succeeded by dexterous diplomacy in whining the support of Cassar Borgia, and was elected to the papal dignity by the unanimous vote of the cardinals. From the beginning Julius II. set himself with a courage and deter mination rarely equalled to rid himself of the various powers under which his temporal authority was almost overwhelmed. By a series of complicated stratagems he first succeeded in rendering it impossible for Borgia to remain in the papal states. He then used his influence to reconcile the two powerful houses of Orsini and Colonna, and, by decrees made in their interest, he also attached to himself the remainder of the nobility. Being thus secure in Rome and the surrounding country, he next set himself to oust the Venetians from Faenza, Rimini, and the other towns and fortresses of Italy which they occupied at the death of Alexander VI. Finding it impossible to succeed with the doge by remonstrance, he in 1504 brought about a union of the conflicting interests of France and Germany, and sacrificed temporarily to some extent the independence of Italy in order to conclude with them an offensive and defensive alliance against Venice. The combination was, however, at first little more than nominal, and was not immediately effective in compelling the Venetians to deliver up more than a few unimportant places in the Romagna ; but by a brilliant campaign Julius in 1506 succeeded in freeing Perugia and Bologna from their despots, and raised himself to such a height of influence as to render his friend ship of prime importance both to the king of France and the emperor. Events also in other respects so favoured his plans that in 1508 he was able to conclude with Louis XII., the emperor Maximilian, and Ferdinand of Aragon the famous league of Cambrai against the Venetian republic. In the spring of the following year the republic was placed
