174 MADAGASCAR called Sakalava, in the south-west of Madagascar, advanced north ward, conquered all the inhabitants of the western half of the island, as well as some northern and central tribes, and eventually founded two kingdoms which retained their supremacy until the close of last century. About that time, however, the H6va in the central province pf Imerina began to assert their own position under two warlike and energetic chieftains, Andrianimpoina and his son Radama ; they threw off the Sakalava authority, and after several wars obtained a nominal allegiance from them ; they also conquered the surrounding tribes, and so made themselves virtual kings of Madagascar. Since that time the Hova authority has been retained over the central and eastern provinces, but is only nominal over much of the western side of the island, while in the south-west the people are quite independent, and are still under their own petty kings or chiefs. Arab in- While European intercourse with Madagascar is comparatively tercourse recent, the connexion of the Arabs with the island dates from a and in- very remote epoch ; and in very early times settlements were formed fluenco. both on the north-west and south-east coasts. In the latter locality there are still traces of their influence in the knowledge of Arabic possessed by a few of the people ; and it is asserted that the ruling clans of the Tanala and other tribes in that district are all of Arab descent. But in these provinces they have almost lost all separate existence, and have become merged in the general mass of the people. It is different, however, in the north-west of the island. Here are several large Arab colonies, occupying the ports of Amorontsanga, M6janga, Marovoay, and Morondava, and retaining their distinct nationality, together with their own dress, habits, houses, worship, and language. There is also in these districts a Hindu element in the population, for intercourse has also been maintained for some centuries between India and northern Madagascar, and in some towns the Banyan Indian element is as prominent as the Arab one, and Hindu dress, ornament, music, food, and speech are marked features in the social life of these places. In the early times of their intercourse with Madagascar, the Arabs had a very powerful and marked influence upon the Malagasy. This is seen in the num ber of words derived from the Arabic which are found in the native language. Among these are the names of the months and the days of the week, those used in astrology and divination, some forms of salutation, words for dress and bedding, money, musical instru ments, books and writing, together with a number of miscellaneous terms. These form enduring memorials of the influence the Arabs have exerted upon Malagasy civilization, and also on their superstition. Euro- The island is mentioned by several of the early Arabic writers pean in- and geographers, but medieeval maps show curious ignorance of its tercourse size and position. Marco Polo has a chapter upon it, and terms it and at- Madeigascar, but his accounts are evidently confused with those of tempted the mainland of Africa. The first European voyager who saw coloniza- Madagascar appears to have been a Portuguese captain named tion. Fernando Scares, in command of a squadron of eight ships from the fleet of Don Francisco do Almeida. On his way home from India he sighted the island on the 1st of February 1506. The Portuguese gave names to most of the capes, but made no persistent attempts at colonization. After them the Dutch endeavoured, but with little success, to form colonies ; and in the time of Charles I. proposals were made to form an English "plantation," but these were never carried into effect, although for a short time there was a settlement formed on the south-west coast. In the latter part of the 17th and during most of the 18th century the French attempted to establish military positions at various places on the east coast, but with little permanent result. For some time they held the extreme south-east point of the island at Fort Dauphin ; but several of their command ants were so incapable and tyrannical that they were frequently involved in war with the people, and more than once their stations were destroyed and the French w.ere massacred. Early in the present century all their positions on the mainland were relinquished, and they now retain nothing but the islands of St Marie on the east coast and Nosibe on the north-west. No foreign power now holds any portion of Madagascar, for the native Government has jealously reserved all territorial rights to itself, and will suffer no purchase of land by foreigners, allowing it only to be held on short leases. R-adima, The political history of Madagascar as a whole may be said to date I. from the reign of Radama I. (1810-28). The ancestors of that king had been merely chiefs of the central provinces, but he was the first to claim by right of conquest to be supreme ruler of .the whole island, although actually exercising authority over less than two-thirds of its surface. Radama was a man much in advance of his age, shrewd, enterprising, and undeterred by difficulty, a kind of Peter the Great of his time. He saw that it was necessary for his people to be educated and civilized if the country was to pro gress ; and making a treaty with the governor of Mauritius to abolish the export of slaves, he received every year in compensation a subsidy of arms, ammunition, and uniforms, as well as English training for his troops. He was thus enabled to establish his authority over a large portion of the island, and, although this was often effected with much cruelty, the ultimate results were bene ficial to the country as a whole. A number of native youths were sent to Mauritius, and others to England, for education and instruc tion in some of the arts of civilization, as we ll as in seamanship. For some years a British agent, Mr Hastie, resided at Radama s court, and exercised a powerful influence over the king, doing very much for the material advance of the country. At the same period Intro- (1820) Christian teaching was commenced in the capital by the duction London Missionary Society, and by the efforts of its missionaries of Clm* the language was for the first time reduced to a systematic written tianity. form, and the art of printing introduced ; books were prepared, the Scriptures were translated, numerous schools were formed, and several Christian congregations were gathered together. The know ledge of many of the useful arts was also imparted, and many valuable natural productions were discovered, and their pre paration and manufacture taught to the people. At the same timo the power of superstition was greatly broken, a result partly duo to the keen good sense of the king, but chiefly to the spread of know ledge and religious teaching. The bright prospects thus opening up for the country were Ranavi- clouded by the death of Radama at the early age of thirty-six, and loua I. the seizure of the royal authority by one of his wives, the Princess Ranavalona. Superstitious and despotic in temper, the new sovereign looked with much suspicion upon the ideas then gaining power among many of her people, and after a few years of tem porizing she at length determined to strike a decisive blow at the new teaching. In 1835 the profession of the Christian religion was declared illegal ; all worship was to cease, and all religious books were ordered to be given up. By the middle of the following year all the English missionaries were obliged to leave the island, and for twenty-five years the most strenuous eiforts were made by the queen and her Government to suppress all opposition to her com mands. This, however, only served to show in a very remarkable manner the courage and faith of the Christian Malagasy, of whom about two hundred suffered death in various cruel forms, while many hundreds were punished more or less severely by fine, degrada tion, imprisonment, and slavery. During the queen s reign the political condition of the country was deplorable ; there were fre quent rebellions owing to the oppressive nature of the government ; many of the distant provinces were desolated by barbarous wars ; and for some years all Europeans were excluded, and foreign com merce almost ceased. This last circumstance was partly owing to an ill-managed attack upon Tamatave in 1846 by a combined English and French force, made to redress the wrongs inflicted upon the foreign traders of that port. But for the leaven of Christianity and education which had been introduced into the country it would have quite reverted to a state of barbarism. This reign of terror was brought to a close in 1861 by the death Radam; of the queen and the accession of her son Radama II. The island II. was reopened to European trade, and missionary efforts were recom menced. A determined attempt was made by some enterprising Frenchmen to gain for their country an overwhelming influence by means of a treaty which they induced the king to sign. But this act, as well as the vices and insane follies into which he was led by worthless foreign and native favourites, soon brought his reign and his life to an end. He was put to death in his palace (1863) after having reigned for less than two years, and his wife was placed on the throne. The new sovereign and her Government refused to ratify the agreement which had been illegally obtained, choosing rather to pay a million francs as compensation to the French company. During the five years reign of Queen Rasoherina, quiet and steady Rasohe advances were made in civilization and education, and treaties were rina. concluded with the English, French, and American Governments. At the death of Rasoherina in 1868, she was succeeded by her RanavJ were baptized, and the erection of a chapel royal was commenced in the palace yard. These acts were followed in the succeeding year by the burning of the royal idols, and immediately afterwards by the destruction of the idols throughout the central provinces, _the people generally putting themselves under Christian instruction. Since that time education and enlightenment have made great progress, chiefly through the labours of the London Missionary Society s missionaries, with whom are also associated several agents of the Friends Foreign Mission Association. About 1200 congrega tions have been formed, and about 900 schools, in which nearly 50,000 children receive instruction ; and there are _also normal schools and colleges where teachers, pastors, evangelists, and the sons of the upper classes are well educated. A considerable amount of literature has been prepared, and several printing presses are con stantly at work. Very marked advance has been made as regards the morality of the people by the suppression of the grosser and more open forms of vice, the abolition of polygamy, and the restric tions placed upon arbitrary divorce. All the barbarous punish ments of the old laws have been done away with ; and the only war carried on during the present reign was conducted with such
humnnity as well as sagacity that peace was speedily restored.