M A L M A L 343 return the Maltese took a share in his wars. When the knights took possession the Maltese stipulated that each grand master on entering office should take oath to maintain their ancient rights and liberties (Eton, pp. 38, 85, 101). The knights began by deceiv ing the Maltese candidates for admission into their ranks. Their rule, at first conciliatory, soon became despotic ; in time the over shadowing power of a rich military organization encroached upon the constitutional government, corruption brought the officials under the control of the knights, and the people lost their liberties, though the material prosperity of the islands was in many ways heightened. For the history of the order of St John see ST JOHN (KNIGHTS OF). Twenty-eight successive grand masters, from Lisle d Adam to Hom- pesch (1530 to 1798), held the islands. Lisle d Adam established his convent and hospital in the Borgo, a city that had grown up on the coast near the castle St Angelo, opposite the ancient fort St Elmo. In 1541 was made the first survey for the fortification of Yaletta. Ten years later the Turks, led by their famous naval commander Dragut, ravaged Gozo, and made an attempt upon Malta which failed. The knights, already famous for their power at sea, were soon engaged in much skirmishing warfare against the pirates and Turks, winning success and riches, and the gratitude of Christian nations. In 1 565, after eight years of threatening prepara tions, during which the knights had been strengthening and forti fying their island, the Turks besieged them with an immense force ; they defended themselves with such valour that it took a month to reduce Fort St Elmo, and in rather over two months more the Turks, whose further advance was successfully resisted, were forced to retire, leaving the knights free to build their new city Yaletta nnd its fortifications. The admiration and gratitude of Catholic countries for this service to Christendom showed itself in liberal donations towards these works ; large sums were also raised from the possessions of the order ; and Yaletta, the first stone of which was laid on 26th March 1566, in four years rose upon the ridge of rock, "a city built by gentlemen for gentlemen," as it has been well described, the original design of which, the cutting down the rock to a level platform, had only suffered from the continual fear of molestation by the Turks while building. The order, now firmly established in their island, continued to carry out their mission, that of keeping the Mediterranean clear from Turkish and Moorish pirates, and of protecting Christendom against the infidels. Numerous sea-fights took place during the 16th and 17th centuries, many of them undertaken more to make up for the neglect of some of the grand masters to supply the islands with corn, by seizing upon Turkish stores, than for any better reason. Valetta became in consequence " a vast slave mart." In 1614, under G. M. Yignacourt, an aqueduct was constructed at a cost of 13,000 to bring water to Yaletta from springs near Citta Vecchia, a work of immense value, and still in use. But the work of fortifying Malta occupied a large share of money and attention, and was carried on without relaxation by many of the grand masters, down as late as the building of Fort Tigne in 1793. Besides the great lines and forts in and round Yaletta, the knights have left their mark all over the islands : they made good roads, improved Citta Yecchia, built watch-towers round the coasts, and erected towers, country palaces, and gardens. They also established and continually carried on, at Notabile and Valetta, their hospitals for the sick and wounded. In 1768 the Jesuits, having given much trouble, were expelled and their property confiscated. Danger from retx llion twice threatened the knights in 1722, when the slaves were believed to be in com munication with the Turks, and from 1773 to 1775, when both people and priests were wrought upon by oppression and mis- government, which, only mitigated for a time by the better mea sures of G. M. Rohan, led to the weak and disorganized condition of the order that ended in its overthrow. In June 1798, the pos sessions of the order in France having already been seized by the republicans, Bonaparte on his way to Egypt landed with a large force in a bay behind Valetta; no resistance was made, and in a few "hours the French were in possession of the whole of Gozo and Malta except the town of Valetta and one little fort. In four days more, without bombardment, the order had surrendered Valetta and practically ceased to exist. Bonaparte stayed six days, laying down laws and regulations with a high hand, and collecting plunder from churches, &c. He left Vaubois in charge, but in less than three months the Maltese had revolted from the tyranny of their new masters, and Vaubois inside Valetta with 6000 men sustained a siege and blockade lasting two years, during which time Portuguese, Neapolitans, and a small force of English assisted the Maltese. Sir Alexander Ball commanded in the name of the Sicilian king, and was put at the head of their National Council by the Maltese. On 4th September 1800 Vaubois surrendered, and the Maltese (who lost 20,000 men) put themselves and their islands under the pro tection of the English, reunion to the crown of Sicily, which they Tiad sought, being no longer thought of. The treaty of Amiens (1802) provided that the islands should be restored to the order of St John, obviously to the advantage of France, but repugnant to the Maltese. War breaking out again, the islands remained in the hands of England till in 1814 they were secured to her by the treaty of Paris (Art. 7), under which she still holds them. See Kenrick s Phoenicia, 1855; A. A. Camana s Reports on Phoenician and Roman Antiquities in Malta, 1881 nnd 1882; James Smith, Voyage and Shipwreck of St Paul, 1866 ; K. Pirrus, Sicilia Sacra T. Fazello, Storia di Sicilia, 1833 ; C. de Baz incourt, Histoire tie la Sidle, 1846 ; G. F. Abela, Malta Illustrata, 1772; J. Quintin, Insulie Melitx deicriptio, 153(5 ; G. W. von Streitbiirg, Reijse nach der fusel Malta, Ifi32 ; K. Gregorio, Coniideratiotli opra la Storia di Sicilia, 1839; F. A. C. Davalos, Tableau historique de Alalte, 1816 ; W. Kton, Authentic Mate rials for History of Malta, 1802 ; Houel, Voyage Pittoresqne, vol. iv., 1787 ; G. P. Badger, Description of Malta and Gozo, 1858; G. N. Godwin, Guide to and Natural History of Maltese Islands, 1880 ; Whitworth Porter, History of Knights vf Malta, 1858; A. Bigelow, Travels in Malta and Sicily, 1831; M. Miege, Histoire de Malte, 1840; Parliamentary Papers reports by Mr Kowsell on "Taxation and Expenditure of Malta," 1878, by Sir P. Julyan on "Civil Establishments," 1880, and Mr Keenan on the " Educational System," 1880 (the list two deal with the question of language); F. Vella, Maltese Grammar for the use of the Eng ish, 1831 ; Malta Penny Magazine, 1839-41 ; J. T. Mifsud, Jiiblioteca Maltese, 1764. Brydone, Teo-gc, John Dryden, jun., W. Tallack, Rev. H. Seddall, Boi*gelin, Rev. W. K. R. Bedford, W. H. Bartlett, St Priest, Msgr. JJres, and F. Lacroix have also written on Malta. For natural science, see the works of Dr A. L. Adams, Professor E. Forbes, Captain Spratt, Dr G. Gulia, C. A. Wright, and Wood s Tourist s Flora. (L. T. S.) MALTE-BRUN, CONRAD, a distinguished geographer, was born August 12, 1755, at Thysted in Denmark, and lied at Paris, December 14, 1826. His real name was Malte Conrad Bruun, and it was nut till he settled in France that he became known by the more familiar form. While a student at Copenhagen, he made himself famous partly by his verses, but much more by the violence of his political pamphleteering; and at length, in 1800, the legal actions which the Government authorities had from time to time instituted against him culminated in a sentence of perpetual banishment. The principles which he had advocated were those of the French Revolution, and, though he at first sought asylum in Sweden, before long he found his way to Paris. There he looked forward to a political career ; but, when Napoleon s personal ambition began to unfold itself, Malte Brun was bold enough to protest, and to turn elsewhere for employ ment and advancement. He was associated with Mentelle and Herbin in the compilation of their Geographic mathematique . . de toutes les parties du Monde (Paris, 1803-7, 16 vols.), and before many years he was recognized as one of the best geographers of France. He is remembered, not only as the author of six volumes of the learned Precis de geographic universelle, continued after his death by other hands, but also as the originator of the Annales des Voyages (1808), and the principal founder of the Geographical Society of Paris. MALTHUS, THOMAS ROBERT (1766-1 834), the scientific expounder of the principle of population, was born in 1766 at the Rookery, a small estate owned by his father in the county of Surrey. His father was a gentleman of
- ood family and independent fortune, a man of consider
able culture both in literature and philosophy, the friend and correspondent of Rousseau, and one of his executors, one, too, who showed no little interest in those social problems in which his son was to be an original inquirer. Young Mai thus was never sent to a public school, but received Jus education from private tutors, who were themselves men of some distinction. In 1784 he was sent to Cambridge, where he was ninth wrangler, and became fellow of his own college (Jesus) in 1797. The same year he received orders, and undertook the charge of a small parish in Surrey, still, however, retaining his fellowship. In the following year he published the first edition of his great work, An Essay on the Principle of Population as it a/ects the Future Improvement of Society, ivith remarks on^ the speculations of Mr Godwin, M. Condorcet, and other writers. The work excited a good deal of surprise as well as attention ; and with characteristic thoroughness and love of truth the author went abroad to collect materials for the verification and more exhaustive treatment of his views. As Britain was then at war with France, only the northern countries of Europe were quite open to his research at
that time ; but during the brief peace of Amiens Malthus