rouv.j M E D M E D 817 Medical Cases, 1827-31. Thomas Addison takes, some- what later, a scarcely inferior place. The remarkable physiological discoveries of Bell and Marshall Hall for the iirst time rendered possible the discrimination of diseases of the spinal cord. Several of these physicians were also eminent for their clinical teaching, an art in which Englishmen had up till then been greatly deficient. Although many names of scarcely less note might be mentioned among the London physicians of the early part of the century, we must pass them over to consider the progress of medicine in Scotland and Ireland. In Edinburgh the admirable teaching of Cullen had raised the medical faculty to a height of prosperity of which his j successor, James Gregory (1758-1821), was not unworthy. His nephew, William Pulteney Alison (1790-1859), was even more widely known. These great teachers maintained in the northern university a continuous tradition of suc cessful teaching, which the difference in academical and other circumstances rendered hardly possible in London. Xor was the northern school wanting in special investi gators, such as John Abercrombie, known for his work on diseases of the brain and spinal cord published in 1828, and many others. Turning to Ireland, it should be said that the Dublin school in this period produced two physicians of the highest distinction. Robert James Graves (c. 1800-1853) was a most eminent clinical teacher and observer, whose lectures are regarded as the model of clinical teaching, and indeed served as such to the most popular teacher of the Paris school in the middle of this century, Trousseau. William Stokes (1804-1878) was especially known for his works on diseases of the chest and of the heart, and for his clinical teaching. German Medicine from 1800 to 1840. Of the other countries of Europe, it is now only necessary to mention Germany. Here the chief home of positive medicine was still for a long time Vienna, where the "new Vienna school" continued and surpassed the glory of the old. Joseph Skoda (born 1805) extended, and in some respects corrected, the art of auscultation as left by Laennec. Karl Rokitansky (1804-1878), by his colossal labours, placed the science of morbid anatomy on a permanent basis, and enriched it by numerous discoveries of detail. Most of the ardent cultivators of this science in Germany in the next generation were his pupils. In the other German schools, though some great names might be found, as Romberg (1795-1873), the founder of the modern era in the study of nervous diseases, the general spirit was scholastic and the result barren, till the teaching of one man, whom the modern German physicians generally regard as the regenerator of scientific medicine in their country, made itself felt. Johann Lucas Schonlein (1 793-1 8G4) was first professor at Wiirzburg, afterwards at Zurich, and for twenty years at Berlin (from 1839-1859). Schonlein s positive contributions to medical science were not large ; but he made in 1839 one discovery, apparently small, but in reality most suggestive, namely, that the contagious disease of the head called favus is produced by the growth in the hair of a parasitic fungus. In this may be found the germ of the startling modern discoveries in parasitic diseases. His systematic doctrines founded the so-called " natural history school ; " but his real merit was that of the founder or introducer of a method. In the words of Hueser, "Schonlein has the incontestable merit of having been the first to establish in Germany the exact method of the French and the English, and to impregnate this method with the vivifying spirit of German research." The name of Schonlein thus brings us to the threshold of the modern German school of medicine, the most scientific and exact in Europe, and in its spirit strikingly in contrast with the theoretical subtlety of German systematists in the last century. Literature. The earliest work of authority on tlie history of medicine is that of Daniel le Clerc (Hiitoire de la Mvdecinc, Geneva, 1696; Amsterdam, 1704, 1723, &c.), which ends with Galen. Freiml s History of Physick (London, 1725-26, 2 vols.) carries on the subject from Galen to the beginning of the 16th century. The first com plete history is that of Kurt Sprengel ( Vcrsuch tincr pragmatischcn OcscUchtc dcr Ar^ndkundc, Halle, 1792 ; 3d edition, Halle, 1821-28, 5 vols.; also in French, Paris, 1815). Beside these may be mentioned Hecker, Geschichte dcr Hcilkunde, Berlin, 1822, and Gesch. dcr neuercn Hcilkunde, Berlin, 1839 ; Cli. Paremberg, Histoire dcs sciences medicalcs, Paris, 1870, 2 vols.; Edward Meryon, History of Medicine, London, 1861 (left unfinished, vol. i. only having appeared). The most recent and complete text-book is Haeser s Lehrluch dcr Geschichte dcr Mcdicin und dcr Epidcmischcn Krankhcitcn (3d edition, Jena, 1875-79, 3 vols., in course of com pletion), to which the preceding sketch is very largely indebted. In special departments of the subject the authorities are the following : For classical medicine : Celsus, De Mcdidna ; Liltie, (Euvrcs d Hippocratc, Paris, 1839-61, 10 vols. (especially vol. i.) ; Francis Adams, Genuine Works of Hipocrates translated, with a Pre liminary Discourse, London (Syd. Soc.), 1849, and Paulus JBmneta, translated, with a Commentary, London (Syd. Soc.), 1844 ; Darem- berg, LaMededne dam Homirc, Paris, 1865, and La Mtdecine cut re , TV __ j _ T* T o/?rt . ,--. ,1 ~ A ^S>/wiil ill *e n l*4"lftlMf und Katurf or seller, Gottingen, 1840 ; and Lucien Leclerc, Histoire de la Medecine Arabe, Paris, 1876, 2 vols. For Salernitan medicine: Collectio Salcrnitana, edited by De Renzi, Daremberg, &c., Naples, 1852, 5 vols. ; Regimen Sanitatii, with introduction by Sir A. Croke, Oxford, 1830 ; and Daremberg, L Ecolc de Salome, Pans, 1861. For medicine in England: John Aikin, Biographical Memoirs of Medicine in Great Britain, to the time of Harvey, London, 1780; Lives of British Physicians, London, 1830 (chiefly by Dr Macmicbael, partly bv Dr Bisset Hawkins and Dr H. H. Southey) ; and Munk, Roll of the Royal College of Physicians of London, 2d ed., 18/8, 3 vols. For the modern schools : Hirschel, Gcschicltc dcs Broicn - schcn Systems und dcr Errcgungs Theorie, Leipsic, 1846 ; Bouchut, Histoire de la Medcdne ct des Doctrines Medicalcs, 2 vols., 1 ans, 1873 (comparison of ancient and modern schools); Buckle, Ihxtaiy of Civilization in England, 1858-61. MEDINA, or rather EL-MEDINA (the city), or MEDINAT RASUL ALLAH (the city of the apostle of God), a town of the Hijaz in Arabia, in 25 N. lat., 40 E. long., 1 the refuge of Mohammed on his flight from Mecca, and a renowned place of Moslem pilgrimage, consecrated by the possession of his tomb. The name El-Medina goes back to the Koran (sur. xxxiii. 60); the old name was Yathrib, the Lathrippa of Ptolemy and lathrippa of Stephanus Byzantius. 1 This can only be viewed as a very rough estimate. The road from Yanbu on the Red Sea, which runs somewhat north of east, is by Burton s estimate 132 miles. From Medina to Mecca by the inland or high road he makes 248 miles. The usual road near the coast by Rabigh and Kholeys and thence to W. Fatima cannot be very differ ent in length. Caravans traverse it in about ten or eleven days. Medina stands in a sort of basin at the _norlhem extremity of an elevated plain, on tbe western skirt of the mountain range which divides the Red Sea coast-lands from the central plateau of Arabia. At an hour s distance to the north it is dominated by Mount Ohod, an outlying spur of the great mountains, which is now visited by the pious as the scene of the well-known battle (see MOHAMMED), and the site of the tomb and mosque of the Prophet s uncle Hamza. To the east the plain is bounded by a long line of hills eight or ten hours distant, over which the Nejd road runs. A number of torrent courses (of which W. Kandt to the north, at the foot of Mount Ohod, and W. Akik, some miles to the south, are the most important) descend from the mountains, forming considei able streams and pools after rain, and converge in the
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