"redif," or second reserve; "hijade," or landsturm; and a
certain number of irregular levies.Although in principle every one is liable to service, the army is recruited entirely from the Mussulman population, Christians and others being exempted on payment of a tax called the " bddel." The capital, the island of Crete, and certain frontier districts, are by ancient privilege exempt both from service and from the tax. The burden of the con scription therefore falls on a comparatively small proportion, considerably less than one-half of the population. The actual conscripts, however, are not numerous. A consider able proportion of the army is raised by voluntary enlist ment, the pay being sufficiently high to attract poor Mussulmans; and as personal substitutes, or exemption on payment of a fixed sum (in which case Government finds the substitute), are both allowed, all possessed of any means can and usually do escape service. The period of service is fixed at twenty years, four in the ranks, two in the " ichtjat," six in the "redif," and eight in the "hijade." The strength of the standing army remaining at 150,000 men, the annual levy is fixed at one quarter of this, or 37,500 ; and it is estimated that this will give 70,000 (two years contingents, deducting casualties) in the " ichtjat," about 200,000 in the "redif," and 250,000 in the "hijade," or a total of 670,000 men. Practically, however, these numbers would never be attained, and a great part of the necessary organisation exists only on paper.
The standing army is divided into six army corps, corresponding to the six military districts or "ordus" into which the empire is divided ; each army corps consists of 6 to 7 infantry regiments, 6 or 7 rifle battalions, 2 to 7 cavalry regiments, and 1 artillery regiment. There is no divisional or brigade organisation in peace time, the regimental commanders communicating direct with the corps commanders ; but in war time brigades of two regiments and divisions of two brigades are formed. The infantry of the standing army consists of 41 line regi ments of 3 battalions each, and 38 rifle battalions, or a total of 161 battalions. A line or rifle battalion has 8 companies, and a normal or war strength of 33 officers and 800 men ; the peace strength is variable, being reduced by furloughs granted at the discretion of the corps or regi mental commander, and seldom exceeds 400. Their regi mental organisation, parade formations, and drill, are copied from the French. The infantry uniform, which until recently was also on the European pattern, is now more national, and consists of an open blue jacket, an ornamental waistcoat, leather sash, wide Turkish trousers, yellow lace boots, and fez cap. The cavalry numbers 25 regiments, all light cavalry, each of 6 squadrons, and numbering on war establishment 42 officers, 914 men, and 856 horses. The four centre squadrons are armed with lances, the two flank ones with breech-loading carbines ; all carry sword and revolver besides. The uniform is an open jacket and waistcoat like that of the infantry, but differently laced ; the saddle is that known in Austria as the " Hungarian " saddle.
The artillery consists of 6 regiments of field artillery, attached to the several army corps, a reserve artillery regi ment, and 7 regiments of garrison artillery. A field artillery regiment consists of 15 batteries of 6 guns each; the reserve artillery regiment is similarly organised, and acts as a depot to the others. The garrison regiments are distributed to the different fortresses ; they are formed of 4 battalions of 3 companies, and have a war strength of 2040 men, but in peace scarcely number a third of that. The fortification corps, or corps of engineers, belongs to the artillery, and consists of 2 battalions of 4 companies each. The artillery has always been the best organised and most highly trained branch of the Ottoman army. Mahmoud paid special attention to it, and it was the fidelity of that branch that gave him the victory in the struggle with the janissaries. Foreign officers, Germans especially, have always been largely employed in it, and by their exertions have brought it to a state of efficiency contrasting most favourably with the rest of the army.
The following gives the actual strength of the " nizam ;I or standing army in 1870, and its estimated strength on war establishment (combatants only):—
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Actual strength. Estimated var strength. Infantry 71,000 128,000 Cavalry 16,000 20,000 Artillery (guns) 396 552
After completing four years service in the ranks, the Turkish soldier is passed into the " ichtjat," or first reserve, for two years, during which he is liable at any time to be recalled, and cannot leave his district without permission. The men of this first reserve, estimated at 70,000, are intended to form separate battalions, but are in all respects available for service like the standing army. Actually a large number would be required to complete the " nizam," and the cadres and officers for these reserve battalions only partially exist. A few such battalions were, however, formed at the time of the Yemen expedition in 1870. After two years in this first reserve, the soldier is passed on to the " redif," or second reserve. The "redif " can only be called oiit in war time, and is not liable for service except within the country. It is divided into two levies, each of three years contingents, and forms separate regiments and batteries ; and it is proposed to form these into army corps corresponding to the existing corps of the standing army, and consisting each of 6 infantry regiments, 6 rifle batta lions, 3 cavalry regiments, and 1 artillery regiment of G batteries. But this organisation exists on paper only, and it is very doubtful if the necessary cadres and officers would be forthcoming. Lastly, after six years in the "redif," the man is passed on to the "hijade," or landsturm, for eight years; but this force, though liable to be called out in war, is not organised even on paper.
The irregular troops, which are raised in war, and at one time formed a principal element of strength, are of two kinds, paid troops (Bashi-Bazouks) and volunteers (Spahis, Bedouins, &c.) The former are usually raised by contract, the governor of a province receiving orders to raise a certain number, and being supplied with the necessary funds, and thereupon contracting with such chiefs or adventurers as undertake to furnish the men at the lowest cost. Most of the money finds its way into the pockets of the governor or contractor, and but little goes to the Bashi-Bazouks. In the last war between Russia and Turkey (1853-55) 20,000 to 30,000 of these were raised, for the most part ill-armed and worse disciplined infantry ; but most of them were disbanded before the close of the war. The volunteers, on the other hand, though deficient in organisation, are zealous Mussulmans and brave soldiers. They come mostly from the wild border tribes, in small bodies, under their own chiefs and beys, and furnish a very valuable irregular cavalry.
faithful, temperate, and capable of undergoing great hard ships or fatigue. The familiar terms on which the sub ordinate officers mix with the men would be considered subversive of discipline in any other army, but do not appear to be so in the Ottoman army, and serious military offences are rare. When well commanded, he has shown himself capable of great personal devotion and even heroism, but of a passive rather than an active character. Naturally calm and rather apathetic, he seems to have retained that fatalism which is a special characteristic of his religion,
but to have lost the fiery zeal that distinguished his