754-932.] muted into perpetual exile. And finally on Christmas day, in St Peter's, before an assemblage of Roman and Frankish lords, the clergy, and the people, the pontiff placed the imperial crown on Charlemagne's head and all proclaimed him emperor. Thus the new emperor was elected by the Romans and consecrated by the pope. But he was their real master and supreme judge. The pope existed only by his will, since he alone supplied the means for the maintenance of the temporal power, and already pretended to the right of controlling the papal elections. Yet Charlemagne was not sovereign of Rome ; he possessed scarcely any regalia there, and was not in command of the army ; he mainly represented a principle, but this principle was the law which is the basis of the state. The pope still nominated the Roman judges, but the emperor or his missi presided over them, together with those of the pope, and his decision was appealed to in hast resort. During the Caro- lingian times no mention is found of the prefect, and it would seem that his office was filled by the imperial missus, or legate, the judices de clero, and judices de militia. The power of the pope was now entangled with that of the republic on the one hand and that of the empire on the other. The consequent confusion of sacred and secular func- tions naturally led to infinite complications and disputes. The death of Charlemagne in 814 was the signal for a fresh conspiracy of the nobles against the pope, who, dis- covering their design, instantly put the ringleaders to death, and was severely blamed by Louis for this violation of the imperial prerogative. While the matter was under dis- cussion the nobles broke out in fiercer tumults, both in Rome and the Campagna. At last, in 824, the emperor Lothair came to re-establish order in Rome, and proclaimed a new and noteworthy constitution, to which Pope Eugenius II. (824-27) gave his oath of adherence. By this the partnership of pope and emperor in the temporal rule of Rome and the states of the church was again confirmed. The more direct power appertained to the pope ; the supreme authority, presidence of the tribunals, and final judgment on appeal to the emperor. The new constitu- tion also established the right of contending parties to select either the Roman or the Teutonic code for the settle- ment of their disputes. During the Carolingian period it is not surprising that the commune should have been, as it were, absorbed by the church and the empire. In fact it is scarcely mentioned in history throughout that time. And when, no longer sustained by the genius of its founder, the Frankish empire began to show signs of dissolution, the popes, finding their power thereby strengthened, began to assume many of the imperial attributes. Soon, however, as a natural consequence of the loss of the main support of the papacy, the nobles regained vigour and were once more masters of the city. Teutonic and feudal elements had now largely penetrated into their organization. The system of granting lands, and even churches and convents, as benefices according to feudal forms, became more and more general. It was vain for the popes to offer opposi- tion, and they ended by yielding to the current. The fall of the Frankish empire left all Italy a prey to anarchy, and torn by the faction fights of Berengar of Friuli and Guido of Spoleto, the rival claimants to the crowns of Italy and the empire. The Saracens were advancing from the south, the Huns from the north; the popes had lost all power; and in the midst of this frightful chaos a way was opened for the rise of the republics. Anarchy was at its climax in Rome, but the laity began to overpower the clergy to such an extent that the judices de militia pre- vailed over the judices de clero. For a long time no imperial missi or legates had been seen, and the papacy was incredibly lowered. The election of the popes had 787 positively fallen into the hands of certain beautiful women notorious for their evil life and depravity. The aristo- Renewed cracy alone gained strength ; now freed from the domina- P w r tion of the emperor, it continually wrested fresh privileges ^.-^ from the impotent pontiffs, and became organized as the cracy. ruling force of the republic. Gregorovius, notwithstand- ing his denial of the continuation of the senate after the 6th century, is obliged to acknowledge that it appeared to have returned to life in the power of this new baronage. And, although this body was now permeated with the feudal principle, it did not discard its ancient traditions. The nobles claimed to be the main source of the empire; they wished to regain the dignity and office of patricius, and to make it, if possible, hereditary in their families. Nothing is known of their system of organization, but it seems that they elected a chief bearing the title of consul, senator, princeps Romanorum, who was officially recognized by the pope, as a patricius presided over the tribunals, and was the head of the commune. Theophylact was one of the first to assume this dignity. His wife Theodora, known as the senatrix, was one of the- women then dominating Rome by force of their charms and licentiousness. She was supposed to be the concubine', of Pope John X. (914-928), whose election was due to her influence. Her daughter Marozia, in all things her worthy rival, was married to Alberic, a foreign mercenary of un- certain birth who rose to a position of great influence, and, although an alien, played a leading part in the affairs of the city. He helped to increase the power of Theophylact, who seemingly shared the rule of the city with the pope. In the bloody war that had to be waged against the Saracens of southern Italy, and at the defeat of the latter on the Garigliano (916), Theophylact and Alberic were the Roman leaders, and distinguished themselves by their valour. They disappeared from the scene after this victory, but Marozia retained her power, and bore a son Alberic, who was destined to greater deeds. The pope found him- self caught in this woman's toils, and struggled to escape, but Marozia, gaining fresh influence by her marriage with Hugo, margrave of Tuscany, imprisoned the pontiff himself in Castle St Angelo (928). This fortress was the property of Marozia and the basis of her strength. The unfortunate John died within its walls. Raised to the chair by Theodora, he was deposed and killed by her daughter. The authority of the latter reached its culminating point in 93l, when she succeeded in placing her son John XL on the papal throne. On the death of her second husband she espoused Hugo of Provence, the same who in 928 had seized the iron crown at Pa via, and now aspired to the empire. Dissolute, ambitious, and despotic, he came to Rome in 932, and, leaving his army outside the walls, entered Castle St Angelo with his knights, instantly began to play the tyrant, and gave a blow to Alberic his step- son, who detested him as a foreign intruder. This blow The proved the cause of a memorable revolution ; for Alberic rcvol t rushed from the castle and harangued the people, crying ^ om ^ that the time was come to shake off the tyrannous yoke Alberic of a woman and of barbarians who were once the slaves of at the Rome. Then, putting himself at the head of the popu- liead lace, he closed the city gates to prevent Hugo's troops f from coming to the rescue, and attacked the castle. The king fled ; Marozia was imprisoned, Alberic proclaimed lord of the Romans, and the pope confined to the Lateran in the custody of his own brother. Rome was again an independent state, a republic of nobles. Rid of the temporal dominion of emperor and pope, and having expelled the foreigners with great energy and courage, it chose Alberic for its chief with the title of princeps atque omnium Romanorum senator. The tendency of the Roman republic to elect a supreme authority, first mani-
