towers above the plains of eastern Turkestan. To the east it is known for some distance as the Toguz-Davan (Eleven Passes) range; Prejevalsky observed a prominent peak (Jingri, 20,000 feet) on the 90th meridian, east of which successive portions are known as the Angirtakshia, Shuga, Namohon, Burkhan Budha, and Dzun-mo-Lun ranges. The rivers flowing north through openings in the Kuen-Lun are generally small, with the exception of the Hoang-ho. East of the 85th meridian the Kuen-Lun constitutes the chord of an arc formed by the Altin Tagh, Nan-shan, and Kokonur ranges, which project northwards and border the plains of the Lob-nur region and the Chinese province of Kansuh; several hill ranges and some great plateaus notably those of Chaidam or Tsaidam are comprised between the arc and the chord, and the region generally is closely allied to Tibet in its physical aspects. Occasional peaks rise to considerable altitudes and are covered with perpetual snow; the plateaus form a succession of steps ascending from the plains of Gobi to the Tibetan plateau.
Commercial road from west to east.
Darchiendo, called Ta-chien-lu by the Chinese, on the extreme eastern boundary of Tibet, is the principal emporium of the trade between that country and China. Thence two important roads lead to Lhasa, one called the Jung-lam or "official road" (935 miles long), the other the Chang-lam or "northern road" (890 miles). The former, which is the more direct, is the post road and that by which officials travel between Lhasa and Peking; but it crosses much rugged and difficult country. The other is preferred by traders, as being less difficult and less harassed by officials, and mostly passing over plains with an abundance of pasture for their baggage animals. The former has long been known from the published travels of Hue and Gabet and the embassies from Nepal to China, and its eastern section, from Batang to Darchiendo, has been traversed by several Europeans of late years. The latter lies in regions in eastern Tibet into which no European has yet penetrated, but which were recently crossed by Pandit Krishna from north to south; they belong to the province of Kham, which appears to be split up into a number of districts, each governed by its own gyalpo or chieftain, who in some instances is subject to Lhasa, in others to China, but not unfrequently is independent of both. Darchiendo itself lies in the Minia (Miniak) district, from which the Changlam passes through a succession of petty districts, Tau, Dango, Dau, and Rongbacha or Horko, skirting Niarong (Gyarung?). The inhabitants of this last are said to have conquered the neighbouring districts and to have even braved the Chinese, but at last to have been won over to Lhasa by bribery. Rongbacha lies in the valley of the Ja-chu and contains the large town and monastery of Kanzego (2500 houses, 2000 lamas; 10,200 feet above the sea). Beyond it lies, in the valley of the Di-chu, the district of Dar-ge (De-gue), said to be one of the richest and most populous in all Tibet, con taining towns in which the best jewellery, saddlery, guns, and swords are manufactured. The Chang-lam passes through Dar-ge up to Kegudo (11,800 feet), where it meets roads over the Changtang from Chaidam on the north and the Koko-nur district in the north-east. Very little is known of the country between the Changlam and the frontiers of China; it is called Sifan or " the country of the western barbarians " by the Chinese; to the north are the districts of Chiamogolok and Banakhasum, inhabited by marauding tribes, and lower down are the Amdo and Thochu districts, on the borders of tracts occupied by the Manchu tribes of Sze-chuen (China). From Kegudo the Chang-lam trends westwards over the eastern Hor country, all chang-tang, for 300 miles. The route has not yet been explored, but probably passes through the pasturelands of the Sok-pas; on reaching Lake Chomora it turns south wards, then passes the monastery of Shiabden (14,930 feet), a notable resting-place for caravans, crosses the lower scarp of the Chang-tang by the Lani pass (15,750 feet), and finally descends into the Lhasa plateau.
Official road from east to west. The Jung-lam or official road from Darchiendo passes through road Litang (13,400 feet; 2500 houses) and Batang (8150 feet; 2000 from east houses) to Gartok or Kiangka, crossing en route the Yalung and to west. Kin-sha rivers; thence it proceeds up the valley of the Chiamdochu or Lan - tsan - kiang, and has been traversed by the Abbe Desgodins via Dayag (his Tchraya) to Chiamdo (his Tchamouto). He says, " To get an idea of the configuration of the ground let any one take a sheet of parchment, crumple it in his hands into many creases, and then spread it out on a table, and he will obtain a map in relief, furrowed with depressions and steep slopes and presenting very little flat surface. " Chiamdo is the chief town of the province of Kham, and, being considered a point of great strategic importance, is strongly garrisoned; it has a large monas tery, containing 3000 lamas. It is situated at the junction of two rivers, which are frozen in winter; but in summer the valleys are highly cultivated. Thence the Jung-lam proceeds south-west to the bridge of Shang-ye-Jam (Kia-yu-kiao) over the Giama-Nu-chu here called the Sok river and then ascends to Lhojong (13,140 feet) the Lourondson of the lamas survey where it is joined by the road from Gartok via Zayul and Nagong. It then trends westwards over the plateaus already mentioned as bordering the eastern basin of the Yaro-tsanpo, passes occasional small villages, monasteries, and lakes, crosses two lofty passes the Nub-Gang-la (17,940 feet) and the Tola-la (17,350 feet) descends to the little town of Giamda (10,900 feet) in Kongbo, and, passing out of Kham into U, enters the Lhasa plateau. From the capital it is continued over a distance of about 900 miles to the western limits of Khorsum, crossing the Yaro-tsanpo at the Chiak-jam-chori bridge and recrossing at Junglache, midway passing through Shigatze; it then tra verses a great breadth of chang-tang and crosses the meridional water-parting at the Muriam-la (15,500 feet). There are twentyfive staging places called tarjums, from 20 to 70 miles apart, be tween Lhasa and Rudok, with accommodation sometimes houses, but more generally tents for about 200 men; they are under the charge of a jalno, who is bound to provide yaks and other beasts of burden and horses for carrying the mails, impressing them from the nomads encamped near the tarjums. The road is generally well defined: loose stones are cleared away in the narrow defiles, and piles of stones, surmounted by flags on sticks, are erected at places on the open stretches of tableland where the track is liable to be lost.
The climate of Tibet differs greatly in different parts and at Climate, different seasons of the year. In western Tibet the frost is perma nent from October to April, and the lakes and rivers down to 8000 feet are frozen every winter; at 15,000 feet the thermometer falls below the freezing-point every night; and at 20,000 feet there is probably perpetual frost in the shade. The mean monthly tempera tures and ranges of temperature, embracing from six to ten years observations at the meteorological observatory at Leh (in 34 10 N. lat., height 11,540 feet), are as follows in degrees Fahrenheit:
lt;o to .d Z tf d i H 3 c a 3 d
o M a & | S i i % &
8 a i Jan. . . 18-0 28 -5 April 42 -0 31 -0 July 61-1 31-2 Oct. 41-3 30 -5 Feb. .. 21-0 30 -0 May 48 -6 30 l Aug. .V.I -li 31-3 Nov. 32 2 20 7 March 32 -0 28-0 June 56 4 31-8 Sept. 52 -8 31-4 Dec. 24 8 25 -2
At Lhása (in 29° 39′N. lat., height 11,800 feet) the mean temperatures observed by the pandits were 36° in February and March and 61° in June and July. Southern Tibet is described as being delightful in summer, the land covered with vegetation, streams flowing in every valley, and all nature bright, sparkling, and fresh. But in winter snow and frost reign supreme; all vegetation is dried up; the lakes and rivers are frozen; the roads and footpaths are paved with ice; and cold cutting winds sweep across the surface of the land. In northern Tibet Prejevalsky found "a terrible climate" in summer at 14,000 feet: in the second half of May wintry snowstorms were not unfrequent and the frost by night reached -9° Fahr.; and in June and July there were frosts (23° Fahr.) every clear night. In the winter the cold is intense; Hue and Gabet, crossing the Di-chu river in 1846, found a great herd of yaks entombed in ice, the river having frozen whilst they were swimming across. (J. T. W.)
Industry, Trade, and Government.
Industry.The industrial arts are at a somewhat low ebb, though in metal-founding the natives display a certain amount of ability and taste. Their statues and small bells are, however, only copies of Indian models. They use the iron from their mines, which is very good, for making excellent blades for sabres and other weapons. They are very fond of precious stones, but do not know how to work them. Their chief industries are connected with wool, the great and inexhaustible staple of the country. Weaving is generally the work of women. The cloth usually employed for summer garments is the Iwa-wa, which is dyed with madder or indigo, and sold in pieces eight or ten inches in width and about twelve yards in length. Another sort of cloth largely sold is the chro or p rug, of a better quality of wool, finer and thicker, which is often manu factured in Dblls (U), whence it is sometimes called Dblls p rug; it is generally dyed dark red. Terma is a superior kind of thin woollen cloth, a flannel-like fabric, dyed dark red, of which there are two sorts, le-t er, made of shawl wool, and bal-t er, of common wool. Sag-lad is for fine cloth made of fine shawl wool (le-na); and snam-bu is a woollen cloth, very coarse and loosely woven, the common sort of which is not dyed.
Trade.Every Tibetan is more or less a trader. Officers for the superintendence of trade, called garpons, are appointed by the king, the ministers, and the great lamaserais. The import and export traffic is carried on by caravans, which, according to the route and its difficulty, employ yaks or sheep. The two great markets are
