Z U T Z W I 831 was still "the lady of Zurich." This council was made up of the representatives of certain knightly and rich mercantile families (the "patricians"), who excluded the craftsmen from all share in the government, though it was to these last that the town was largely indebted for its rising wealth and importance. In October 1291 the town made an alliance with Uri and Schwyz, and in 1292 failed in a desperate attempt to seize the Hapsburg town of Winterthur. After that Zurich began to display strong Austrian Leanings, which characterize much of its later history. In 1315 the men of Zurich fought against the Swiss Confederates at Morgarten. The year 1336 marks the admission of the craftsmen to a sha re in the town government, which was brought about by Rudolph Brim, a patrician. Under the new constitution (the main features of which lasted till 1798) the council was made up of thirteen members from the "constafel " (including the old patricians and the wealthiest burghers) and the thirteen masters of the craft guilds, each of the twenty-six holding office for six months. The ollice of burgomaster was created and given to Brun for life. Out of this change arose a quarrel with one of the branches of the Hapsburg family, in consequence of which Brun was induced to throw in the lot of Zurich with the Swiss Confederation (1st May 1351). The double position of Zurich as a free imperial city and as a member of the Everlasting League was soon found to be embar rassing to both parties (see SWITZERLAND, vol. xxii. p. 784 sq. ). Meanwhile the town had been extending its rule far beyond its walls, a process which began in the 13th century, went on apace in the 14th, and attained its height in the 15th century (1268-1467). This thirst for territorial aggrandizement brought about the first civil war in the Confederation (the "Old Zurich War," 1436-50), in which, at the fight of St Jacob on the Sihl (1443), under the walls of Zurich, the men of Zurich were completely beaten and their burgomaster Stiissi slain. The purchase of the town of Winterthur from the Hapsburgs (1467) marks the culmination of the territorial power of the city. It was to the men of Zurich and their leader Mans Waldmann that the victory of Morat (1476) was due in the Burgundian War ; and Zurich took a leading part in the Italian campaign of 1512-15, the burgomaster Schmid naming the new duke of Milan (1512). No doubt her trade connexions with Italy led her to pursue a southern policy, traces of which are seen as early as 1331 in an attack on the Val Leventina and in 1478, when Zurich men were in the van at the fight of Giornico, won by a handful of Confederates over 12,000 Milanese troops. In 1400 the town received from the emperor the Reichsvogtei, which carried with it complete immunity from the empire and the right of criminal jurisdiction. As early as 1393 the chief power had practically fallen into the hands of the council of 200 (really 212), composed of the former council and a number of other citizens originally elected by it ; and in 1498 this change was formally recog nized. This transfer of all power to the guilds had been one of the aims of the burgomaster Hans Waldmann (1483-89), who wished to make Zurich a great commercial centre. He also introduced many financial and moral reforms, and subordinated the interests of the country districts to those of the town. He practically ruled the Confederation, and under him Zurich became the real capital of the League. But such great changes excited opposition, and he was overthrown and executed. His main ideas were embodied, however, in the constitution of 1498, by which the patricians be came the first of the guilds, and which remained in force till 1798 ; some special rights were also given to the subjects in country dis tricts. It was, however, the prominent part taken by Zurich in adopting and propagating the principles of the Reformation which finally secured for it the lead of the Confederation ; for a detailed ac-count of its policy and the events in which it shared during this period, see SWITZERLAND (vol. xxii. p. 790 sq.) and ZWINGLI. In the 17th and 18th centuries a distinct tendency becomes ob servable in the city government to limit power to the actual holders. Thus the country districts were consulted for the last time in 1620 and 1640 ; and a similar breach of the charters of 1489 and 1531 occasioned disturbances in 1777. The council of 200 came to be chosen by a small committee of the members of the guilds actually sitting in the council, and early in the 18th century a determined effort was made to crush by means of heavy duties the nourishing .silk trade in Winterthur. In 1655 an attempt was made by Bern and Zurich to set up a central administration in the Confederation, which failed through the jealousy of the other cantons. The first symptoms of active discontent appeared later among the dwellers by the lake, who founded in 1794 a club at Sta fa and claimed the restoration of the liberties of 1489 and 1531, a movement which was put down by force of arms in 1795. The old system of govern ment perished in Zurich, as elsewhere in Switzerland, in 1798, and under the Helvetic constitution the country districts obtained political liberty. But under the cantonal constitution of 1815 the town had 130 representatives in the great council, while the country districts had only 88. A great meeting at Uster on 22d November 1830 demanded that two-thirds of the members in the great council should be chosen by the country districts ; and in 1831 a new con stitution was drawn up on these lines, though it was not till 1837-38 that the town finally lost the last relics of the privileges which it had so long enjoyed as compared with the country districts. In 1833 Zurich tried hard to secure a revision of the Federal constitu tion and a strong central Government. The town was the Federal capital for 1839-40, and consequently the victory of the Conserva tive party there caused a great stir throughout Switzerland. But, when in 1845 the Radicals regained power at Zurich, which was again the Federal capital for 1845-46, that city took the lead in opposing the Sonderbund cantons. In 1869 the cantonal constitu tion was again thoroughly revised in a very democratic sense ; and, with the exception of a few changes made later, it is the existing constitution. There is an executive of seven members and a legis lature of 211 (one member to every 1500 inhabitants), each holding office for three years and elected at the same time directly by the vote of the people. The referendum exists in both forms, com pulsory and optional : all laws and all money grants of a total sum over 250,000 francs or an annual sum of 20,000 must be submitted to a popular vote, the people meeting for that purpose at least twice in each year, while the executive may submit to a popular vote any other matter, though it fall within its powers as defined by law. One-third of the members of the legislature or 5000 legally qualified voters can force the Government to submit to the people any matter whatsoever (initiative). The constitution provides for the imposition of a graduated and progressive income tax. In 1885 the penalty of death was abolished in the canton. Zurich has sheltered many political refugees of late years, especially Poles and Russians ; but its hospitality has been abused by the Socialists, who have given considerable trouble. The Swiss National Agricul tural and Industrial Exhibition was held at Zurich in 1883. For the present state of the town, see Europaische Wanderbilder (Xos. 12C- 12<>), Zurich, 1887. For the local and architectural history the principal work is S. Vogelin, Das alte Zurich (2d ed., 1878), and for general history, J. C. Bluntschli, Stoats- und Rechts-GeschicMe der Stadt und Landschaft Ziirich (2d ed., 1856); G. v. Wyss, Geschichte der AUei Ziirich, 1851-58 (in vol. viii. of Mittheil. d. antiquar. Gesellsch. inZ.); Id., Die Reichsvogtei Ziirich, 1870 (in vol. xvii. of Zeitschr. f. Schweiz. Recht). Many of the recent works on Swiss history, e.g., those of Diindliker, Oechsli, Orelli, Strickler, are by Zurich men and pay special attention to Zurich matters. (W. A. B. C.) ZUTPHEN, a fortified town of Holland, in the province of Guelderland, 20 miles by rail south from Deventer, stands on the right bank of the Yssel, at its junction with the Berkel. Its most important public building is the church of St Walburga, dating from the 12th century, which contains several interesting monuments of the counts of Zutphen, and good examples of old metal-work and sculp ture. The place has an active trade, especially in grain and in the timber floated down from the Black Forest by the Rhine and the Yssel ; the industries include tanning, weaving, and oil and paper manufactures. The population in 1887 was 16,357. Some 2| miles to the north of the town is the agricultural colony of Nederlandsch-Mettray, founded by a private benefactor for the education of poor and friendless boys in 1851, and since that date largely extended. Zutphen at one time belonged to the Hanseatic League and had an extensive foreign trade. It has been more than once besieged, and it was before Zutphen that Sir Philip Sidney received his mortal wound (22d September 1586). ZWEIBRUCKEN. See DEUX FONTS. ZWICKAU, one of the busiest towns in the industrial district of the kingdom of Saxony to which it gives its name, is situated in a pleasant valley on the left bank of the Zwickauer Mulde, 41 miles south of Leipsic. The river is here crossed by four bridges, two of which are of iron. The town contains six churches, including the fine Late Gothic church of St Mary (1453-1536, restored 1884), with a tower 278 feet high, and the Gothic church of St Catherine (14th to 15th century), of which Thomas Miinzer was pastor in 1520-22. Among the secular buildings are the town-house of 1581, the Gothic " Gewandhaus " (now a theatre) of 1522-24, the Government buildings of 1838, the law-courts, the hospital, and the barracks. The rail way station, which with its dependencies covers 81 acres, is said to be one of the largest in Germany. The chateau of Osterstein (1581-91) is now a penitentiary. The manu factures of Zwickau are both extensive and varied : they include machinery, chemicals, porcelain, paper, glass, dye- stuffs, tinware, stockings, and curtains. There are also
steam saw-mills, brickfields, iron-foundries, and breweries.