law in the University of Perugia, 1343, where he lec tured for many years, raising the character of the law school of Perugia to a level with that of Bologna. He died in 1357 at Perugia, where a magnificent monument recorded the interment of his remains in the church of San Francisco, by the simple inscription of " Ossa Bartoli." Bartolus has left behind him a great reputation, and many writers have sought to explain the fact by attri buting to him the introduction of the dialectical method of teaching law ; but the dialectical method had been em ployed by Odofredus, a pupil of Accursius, in the previous century, and the successors of Odofredus had abused it to an extent which has rendered their writings in many instances unprofitable to read, from the subject matter being overlaid with dialectical forms. It was the merit of Bartolus, on the other hand, that he employed the dialectical method with advantage as a teacher, and discountenanced the abuse of it ; but his great reputation is more probably owing to the circumstance that he revived the exegetical system of teaching law (which had been neglected since the ascendency of Accursius), in a spirit which gave it new life, whilst he was enabled to impart to his teaching a practical interest, from the judicial experience which he had acquired whilst acting as assessor to the courts at Todi and at Pisa before he undertook the duties of a professorial chair. His treatises On Procedure and On Evidence are amongst his most valuable works, whilst his Commentary on the Code of Justinian has been in some countries regarded
as of equal authority with the code itself.BARTON, Benjamin Smith, M.D., an American naturalist, who was the first professor of botany and natural history in a college in the United States. He was born in Pennsylvania in 1766, studied for two years at Edinburgh, and afterwards graduated at Gottingen. He settled at Philadelphia, and soon obtained a considerable practice. In 1789 he was appointed to the professorship above mentioned in Philadelphia College; he was made professor of materia rnedica in 1795, and on the death of Dr Rush in 1813 he obtained the chair of practical medicine. In 1802 he was chosen president of the American Philoso phical Society. Barton was the author of various works on natural history, botany, and materia medica. By his lectures and writings he may be said to have founded the American school of natural history. He died in 1815.
BARTON, Elizabeth, the " Maid of Kent," belonged to the village of Aldington in Kent. She was a pious, nervous, and enthusiastic person, subject to epilepsy; and her enthusiasm, unfortunately for herself, took a political turn at a somewhat critical period in English history. When all England was excited with the attempts made by Henry VIII. to obtain a divorce from Queen Catherine, Elizabeth Barton saw visions and heard speeches, all of which related to the contemplated divorce. These she confided to her parish priest, Richard Masters, and he made them known to Dr Bockling, a canon of Canterbury. Through these men they became widely known, and were everywhere proclaimed to be divine revelations. The chapel at Aldington became the centre of many pilgrimages, and the scene of many excited and tumultuous assemblies. Elizabeth Barton was commonly believed to be a prophetess, and was called the "holy maid of Kent." Meanwhile her visions continued; she saw letters written in characters of gold sent to her by Mary Magdalene, which contained both revelations and exhortations. Among other things she declared that it was revealed to her that if the contem plated divorce took place, the king would be a dead man within seven months. The principal agents for the Pope and for Queen Catherine lent themselves to fan the ex citement. Even such men as bishops Fisher and Warham and Sir Thomas More corresponded with the Maid of Kent. At last the king s wrath was aroused. In 1533 Elizabeth with her principal supporters, Masters, Bockling, and several others, were examined before parliament, and sentenced to be executed. She was beheaded at Tyburn, April 21, 1534. (Of. Burnet s History of tJie Reformation in England ; Lingard s History cf England.)
BARUCH, son of Neriah, was the friend and amanuensis of the prophet Jeremiah. After the temple at Jerusalem had been plundered by Nebuchadnezzar, he wrote down Jeremiah s prophecies respecting the return of the Baby lonians to destroy the state, and read them in the temple before the assembled people at the risk of his life. The roll having been burned by the king s command, Jere miah dictated the same again. When the temple was destroyed, Baruch went to Egypt with Jeremiah, having been blamed as the prompter of the threatening prophecies uttered by the latter. Nothing certain is known as to his death, some accounts representing him as dying in Egypt, others in Babylonia. The Talmud adopts the latter opinion, making him the instructor of Ezra, to whom he is said to have communicated the traditions he had received from Jeremiah.
The Book of Baruch belongs to the Apocrypha, accord ing to Protestants, and to the deutero-canonical produc tions, according to Roman Catholics.
There is hardly sufficient cause for dividing the book, as some critics suggest, between two writers. The author of iii. 9-v. 9 uses Isaiah as well as Jeremiah in two places. A new paragraph undoubtedly begins at iii. 9, which has little connection with the preceding con text, and differs from it perceptibly both in matter and form ; yet it has the same general object. From reproof the language passes to hope and Messianic happiness, and it becomes livelier and more elevated. It is purer Greek without doubt. The supposed traces of Alexandrian cul ture are somewhat indistinct. Wisdom is not spoken of in the Alexandrian manner (iii. 24), but rather in the same way as in Sirach, which is Palestinian.
language. Some are for a Greek original, others for a Hebrew one ; while Fritzsche and Ruetschi think that the first part was composed in Hebrew, the second in Greek. The original seems to have been Hebrew, though Jerome says that the Jews had not the book in that language; and Epiphanius asserts the same thing. The testimony of the former resolves itself into the fact that the original had been supplanted by the Greek ; and that of the latter is not of much value, since he gives Baruch, along with Jeremiah and the Lamentations, in a second list of the canonical books.[1] We rely on the statement that the work was meant to be publicly read in the temple (i. 14) as favourable to a Hebrew original, as well as on the number and nature of the Hebraisms, which are sometimes so peculiar that they cannot be resolved into the authorship of a Greek-speaking Jew. That the writer was a Pales tinian appears from various passages, such as ii. 17, "For the dead that are in the graves, whose souls are taken from their bodies, will give unto the Lord neither praise nor righteousness;" "Hearken, ye that dwell about Zion" (iv. 9); "Ye have forgotten the everlasting God that brought you up ; and ye have grieved Jerusalem that nursed you" (iv. 8). Both the latter passages betray a Palestinian. Besides, the conception of Wisdom in iii. 12, <kc., is Palestinian rather than Alexandrian; for the words in iii. 37 do not refer to the incarna tion of the Logos, but to personified Wisdom, as in Sirach xxiv. 10. This points to a Hebrew original. The
version seems to be free, especially in the latter part.- ↑ Hocres., viiL 6; compare De Jfcns. et Pond., c. 23; ibid., c. 5.
