which consists in passing them through a kind of comb, which retains those that are too stout to go between the teeth. By repeating this with finer combs the bristles can be assorted to any number of sizes required. Various other substances are now used in place of bristles, and this was greatly stimulated by the scarcity of these during the Russian war. In 1808 whalebone fibres were patented in England for the purpose, and in 1810 twigs of broom, mallow, rushes, and other shrubs and plants. In 1842 the shafts of quills prepared and split up, and in 1872 horn and similar substances were used in the same way. The latter are softened by steeping them in an infusion of saga leaves or plants of that class, then flattened, rolled out, and extended and moulded so as to disintegrate them into threads. In 1844 a brush was patented made of stiff fibre and bristles, hard in one part and soft in another, so that the softer parts should follow the harder, and take up what the latter left. The same inventor also made tooth-brushes on the same principle. The hairs of the squirrel, horse, badger, bear, and other animals are also used for brushes, and those from the ears of cows and from the ichneumon, amongst others, for artists pencils. When necessary the bristles are bleached by sulphur or other chemical agents. in the United States a kind of sorghum or broom-corn is extensively cultivated for the manufacture of brooms, and especially by the Shakers of New York State. The seed of the crop alone, it is stated, often pays the expense of cultivation, being, when mixed with other corn, good food
for cattle and horses.One of the most important purposes to which brushes have been applied is that of sweeping chimneys. So far back as 1789 John EUn patented an arrangement of brushes with this purpose in view. He was followed at intervals by others, and the use of these machines having been found practicable, the Acts 3 and 4 Viet. c. 85, and 27 and 28 Viet. c. 37, put an end to the cruelties previously prac tised, prohibiting tho employment of children in sweeping chimneys.
Revolving brushes for cleaning rooms were patented in 1811, and others have followed. In 1825 they were con structed to take the place of teazles for raising the wool or pile of woollen and other cloths, and they are now used for polishing and other purposes in various manufactures, The first patent in which they were applied to hair-dressing appears in 1862. The patented invention for sweeping and cleaning roads by means of revolving brushes and other contrivances are very numerous. The first appears in 16D9. It is that of Edmund Henning for "a new engine for sweeping the streets of London, or any city or town." No specification was enrolled, but the invention included the loading and removal of the refuse " with great ease and quickness." A long interval elapsed before anything further was done in this direction, the next patent being that of W. Ranyard, on 1st November 1825, which con sisted of a number of brushes mounted upon two rims or placed upon an axis, which was raised on a vehicle or barrow. Boase and Smith s followed in 1828, including scraping, sweeping, and watering. From 1836 a succession of inventors follow each other rapidly, amongst whom frequently appears "Joseph Whitworth." Some of the most recent patents are Greenwood s, 17th February 1873 ; Robinson s, 4th April 1874; Sinclair and Clayton s, 20th February 1875; Kitson s, 21st April 1875. Many of these inventions include the removal of the refuse, as well as scraping. Some propose watering in addition ; but the simplest and most easily managed is that most com monly used, which scrapes or sweeps the mud and rubbish to the sides of the road. A particular point in Mr Kitson s invention seems to be to clear out the dust and mud from between the joints of the paving stones.
An improvement in brashmaking was patented in 1830 by Timothy Mason, which consisted in cutting grooves in the stocks or bases of brushes instead of boring holes, the grooves increasing in width from the outer surface. The hairs or bristles are tied up into tufts or knots, dipped in cement, placed in the grooves, and wedged tightly by the use of a blunt tool, which operation causes the tufts to expand and hold firmly in the enlarged recess. Various contrivances have been patented by which brushes might bo self-supplied with water, soap, paste, paint, and the like, when in use, by means of receptacles or pipes being attached to them for the purpose.
One of the greatest advances in the brushmaking of the present day is the Woodbury machine, an American inven tion for bunching, wiring, and inserting bristles in the stock. In this machine a metal comb of uniform thickness is filled with bristles, holding them by the middle, so that one-half of the bristles appear above the surface of the comb, the other underneath. The comb thus charged moves in guideways, and discharges the bristles from each division successively into a channel in which, by an ingenious contrivance, they are brought gradually into a horizontal position and a proper quantity taken up to form a tuft, which is moved along an incline. At the bottom of this is a hollow cylinder that does not enter, but is placed firmly against the tuft hole in the brush stock. A plunger now acts upon the bristles. The end of the plunger is slotted crossways ; one slot receives the bristles, the other a piece of wire. The plunger is made to descend and double the bristles into a loop at the middle. Other mechanism unwinds the binding wire from a reel, straightens the wire, and passes the proper quantity through the enlarged upper portion of the slot, and at the same time cuts off the length required. The plunger now descends further, receiving a rotatory motion on its vertical axis, winds the wire by forcing it into the thread of a nut at the lower portion of the cylinder, and fastens it round the double end of the bunch. The end of the wire now acts as a tap, cutting a female screw in the end of the block, whilst the upper end of the wire thread, by expand ing, acts as a pawl, and prevents the unscrewing of the tuft. This machine is described in the Scientific American, 1872, p. 31, with illustrations.
For further information on the subject of brushes, the reader will find the abridgement of specifications relating to brushing and sweeping, published at the Patent Office, a most useful manual.
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BRUSSELS (French, Bruxelles; Flemish, Brussel; German Brüssel), capital of Belgium and of the province of South Brabant, is situated on the small River Senne, about 50 miles from the sea, in 50 51 N. lat., 4 22 E. long. It lies in the midst of a beautiful and fertile country, and is picturesquely built on the top and sides of a hill, which slopes down to the Senne. The general contour of the old town of Brussels is pentagonal, and is well defined by the boulevards, which occupy the site of the old forti fications ; but extensive additions have been made, especi ally to the east and south, and present a very irregular outline.
presenting characteristics peculiar to itself. The New Town or upper part of the city is dry and healthy, and contains a very large number of handsome buildings, both public and private. The lower part is the more ancient and interesting of the two, but is damp, and in summer unhealthy, from the exhalations of the river and the numerous canals. In the former are situated nearly all the public offices, the royal palace, the chamber of deputies, the residence of the foreign representatives, and the prin
cipal hotels. The latter contains the Hotel de Ville, and