generally with the result of rendering it unfit to be used with comfort or safety in any form.
In comparing the carriages of the present day with those of earlier periods it should be borne in mind that many circumstances apart from the skill and invention of the coach-builder have combined to modify, or to necessitate the modification, of such structures. The condition of streets and roads was such, at no very remote date, as to permit of only the most cautious traffic within limited areas in vehicles of great strength, solidity, and weight. The paving of streets and macadamization of highways gave designers of carriages facilities for planning vehicles of a light, airy type on more elegant lines, of which oppor tunities they were not slow to take advantage. Again, previous to the introduction of railways, not only public coaches but private carriages had to be built with a view to afford accommodation for undertaking long journeys, which are now entirely performed by railway, and that circumstance also now enables the coach-builder to give primary attention to the comfort, gracefulness, and elegance of the vehicles he constructs. But after allowance is made for all such circumstances, there remains to coach-builders, and especially to those of Great Britain, a very large share of credit, for the inventive skill and ingenuity which has brought the modern carriage to that perfection of workman ship and artistic finish which it everywhere displays. To enumerate the improvements in coach-building, which have been effected chiefly in the present century, would demand a much greater space than can be devoted to this subject. It must suffice simply to point to the Collinge axle invented in 1792, now universally adopted, by means of which wheels require oiling only once in several months. The elliptic springs, upon which nearly all carriages are now mounted, were patented by Obacliah Elliott in 1804-. A great many ingenious devices have also been adopted for facilitating the opening and closing of the head of landaus or such carriages as are made to be open or close at pleasure. And generally coach-building has enjoyed a full share of the advantages flowing from the improved mechanical devices and processes of modern times.
Coachmaking.—Coachmaking is a combination of crafts rarely united in one trade, embracing, as it does, work in such diverse materials as wood, iron, steel, brass, cloth, leather, ivory, hair, &c. A great division of labour and numerous highly skilled artizans are consequently employed in the various stages in the construction of a high-class carriage. The workmen include body-makers, who build up the part in which persons sit ; carriage makers, who make or fit together all the under parts of the vehicle on which the body rests ; wheel-wrights, joiners, and fitters ; trimmers, who fit up the inside of the carnage ; and several classes of smiths for special work connected with the iron framing, axles, springs, <fec. Painting is an important part of the business, those professing it being divided into body, carriage, and heraldry or ornamental painters ; and after the painter comes the polisher who gives the final brilliant polish to the outside of the whole structure.
A very great deal in the coach-making business depends on the selection of materials. Ash is the kind of wood commonly used in the framework both of body and carriage ; and the quality best suited for body-wood is that of a mild and free nature, while for the carriage the wood cannot be too strong or robust. Full-grown wood, of course, is best suited for both purposes) and the planks must be allowed to lie until they are properly seasoned, as is indeed most essential with all the wood used in the building of a carriage. After the framework is made, the lower part of the body is panelled up with the softest bay mahogany, plain and free from grain. The kinds of wood generally applied to coach-wheel making are elm or fustic for the naves, oak for the spokes, and ash for the felloes ; but beech felloes are often used, and it has been found by experience that beech, when the felloes are cut from the log shortly after it is felled, and kept until they become dry before being put upon wheels, answers admirably for this purpose. American hickory is also one of the best available woods for spokes as well as carriage poles ; and a large trade is now con ducted between Great Britain and the United States in the importation of American machine-made hickory wheels. Canadian black walnut has also come into use as a sub stitute for mahogany in panelling, and many other woods are available for special portions of carriages.
Formerly, in the making of coach-springs, nothing was used but German steel, which from its hardness was more apt to snap than the English steel now employed for that purpose. The latter combines with superior elasticity a strength that enables the spring-maker to fabricate his springs at least one-third lighter, while they stand equal fatigue. The iron mounting of coach-work requires the skill of experienced smiths ; for, besides solidity, some degree of taste is requisite to form the shapes and sets of the different parts. No branch of coach-making contributes more to the elegance of the vehicle than that of the painter His colours must be of the best quality in order to stand exposure in all weathers. The varnish used is copal, of which there are two kinds, the finest for finishing the body, and the second for finishing the carriage. Between paints of different qualities and varnish, a well-finished carriage gets from twenty to twenty-four separate coats before it is finished. Between each coating of varnish colour and varnish the work is carefully rubbed smooth and flat with pumice or fine glass paper, and the final polish is attained by rubbing with the palm of the hand.
The growth and development of railway travelling, instead of checking the use of horse-drawn vehicles, or injuring the art of the coach-builder, has had a very powerful influence in the opposite direction. Railway travelling has caused an enormous increase in the use of cabs and other public vehicles, while increasing wealth has multiplied luxurious private carriages. The revival of the driving of four-horse drags, in imitation of the old stage coaches, between London and various suburban towns (one going to Brighton), which has taken place of late jears, is deserving of note. These coaches were put on the road by members of several aristo cratic clubs, not with a view to profit ; their success, however, has been very great.
As a coach-making and coaching country, England has long held the foremost place. " The road," its coaches, and their drivers figure largely in the popular literature of the country, and the perfection of coach equipment has bean an unfailing source of national pride. British coach- builders still continue to hold, almost without dispute, the highest position in their craft and that expensive luxury a first-class London-built carriage cannot, for honest work manship, handsome lines, and beautiful finish, be excelled by any product of industry.
a co-extensive parliamentary borough of the same name, in the province of Ulster, in Ireland. It is enclosed by the county of Antrim, except on the S. where it is skirted by the Bay of Carrickfergus (Belfast Lough). It comprises an area of 16,702 acres, of which 129 are occupied by the town. The surface is in general hilly ; Lough Mourne, a lake of about 90 acres in extent, is 556 feet above the level of the sea, and the highest mountain, Slieve True, which commands a magnificent prospect, attains an elevation of 1100 feet. The land near the sea-shore is an alluvial plain. The farms are small, except in the hilly district, where grazing is carried on. The chief crops are oats and
potatoes, for which sea-weed, with lime and vegetable