less than the important scientific facts communicated, has been thought to have aided the further progress of chemical discovery. He may almost be called the founder of pneumatic chemistry, which had barely an existence when he began his researches. In a series of " Three papers, containing Experiments on Factitious Air," Phil. Trans. , 1766, p. 141, he describes the apparatus used in processes of this kind, which he had improved by the occasional employment of mercury. By weighing a bladder filled with a known bulk of inflammable air (hydrogen), and then in a state of collapse, and by examining the loss of weight during the solution of zinc in an acid, he found the specific gravity of inflammable air to be about y^th of that of common air, a discovery which led to balloon experiments and projects for aerial navigation. He also observed that the gas obtained during the solution of copper in muriatic acid was rapidly absorbed by water, but did not inquire further into its nature. The second paper refers to fixed air (carbonic acid), which was found to undergo no alteration in its elasticity when kept a year over mercury, to be absorbed by an equal bulk of water or of olive oil, and by less than half its bulk of spirit of wine, to exceed the atmospheric air in specific gravity by more than one-half, and to render it unfit for supporting combustion even when added to it in the proportion of only 1 to 9. In the third part, the air produced by fermentation and putrefaction is examined, and is shown to be identical with the fixed air obtained from marble. It is also shown that the inflammable air emitted during putrefaction resembles that which is procured from zinc, although it
appears to be a little heavier.A paper on " Experiments on Air," Phil. Trans., 1784, p. 119, contains an account of two of the greatest dis coveries that have ever been made in chemistry, the composition of water, and that of nitric acid. Cavendish first establishes the radical difference of hydrogen from nitrogen, and then relates his experiments on the combus tion of hydrogen with oxygen, which had partly been suggested by an observation of Mr Wai tire, a lecturer on natural philosophy, and which prove that pure water is the result of the process, provided that no nitrogen be present. The second series of experiments shows that when phlo- gisticated air (nitrogen) is present in the process, some nitric acid is produced, and that this acid may be obtained from atmospheric air, by the repeated operation of the electrical spark. In another paper on " Experiments on Air," Phil. Trans., 1785, p. 372, the composition of nitric acid is further established, and it is shown that nearly the whole of the irrespirable part of the atmosphere is con vertible into this acid, when it is mixed with oxygen and an electric spark is passed through the mixture, the fixed air sometimes obtained being due to the presence of organic substances.
Besides the above, Cavendish contributed a number of other papers to the Philosophical Transactions. In an " Account of a New Eudiometer," Phil. Trans., 1783, p. 106, he attributes the great difference in the results of eudiometrical experiments with nitrous gas, or nitric oxide, to the different degrees of oxygenization of the acid that is formed. But he found that when the method employed was the same, there was no sensible difference in the con stituent parts of the atmosphere under circumstances the most dissimilar. the air of London, with all its fires burn ing in the winter, appearing as pure as the freshest breezes of the country. In "An Attempt to explain some of the principal Phenomena of Electricity by means of an Elastic Fluid," Phil. Trans., 1771, p. 584, his theory of electricity agrees with that which had been published a few years before by ^Epinus, but he has entered more minutely into the details of calculation. The law of electric attraction and repulsion had not at that time been fully ascertained, but Cavendish inclines to the true supposition, of forces varying inversely as the square of the distance. In his " Observations on Mr Hutchin s Experiments for deter mining the degree of cold at which quicksilver freezes," Phil. Trans., 1783, p. 303, he denied to heat the character of a substance, and thought " Sir Isaac Newton s opinion, that heat consists in the internal motion of the particles of bodies, much the most probable," a view which it was one of the first of Sir Humphrey Davy s objects to confirm. The apparatus which Cavendish employed in his " Experi ments to determine the density of the Earth," Phil. Trans., 1798, p. 469, had been invented and constructed many years before by the Rev. John Mich ell, who did not live to perform the experiments for which he intended it. The method employed was to suspend by a vertical wire a horizontal bar, having a leaden weight at each end ; to determine the magnitude of the force of torsion by the time occupied in the lateral vibrations of the bar ; and to measure the extent of the change produced in its situation by the attraction of two large masses of lead placed on opposite sides of the case containing the apparatus, so that this attraction might be compared with the weight of the balls, or, in other words, with the attraction of the earth. In this manner the mean density of the earth was found to be five and a half times as great as that of water.
There has been some difference of opinion as to the attitude of Cavendish towards the antiphlogistic theory of Lavoisier. Cavendish by no means dissented from tha whole of that theory. In the " Experiments on Air," Phil. Trans., 1784, he quotes Lavoisier and Scheele with appro bation, as having suggested the opinion " that dephlogisti- cated air and phlogisticated air are quite distinct substances, and that common air is a mixture of the two." Afterwards ho says that " not only the foregoing experiments, but most other phenomena of nature, seem explicable as well, or nearly as well, upon this as upon the commonly believed principle of phlogiston." M. Cuvier has even asserted that the antiphlogistic theory derived its first origin from oiu great discovery of Cavendish, that of the nature of hydro gen, and owed its complete establishment to another, that of the composition of water.
Cavendish possessed a clearness of comprehension, and an acuteness of reasoning, which had been the lot of very few of his predecessors from the days of Newton. Tha splendid career of chemical investigation, which has since been pursued with a degree of success unprecedented in history, may be said to have been first laid open to man kind by his labours.
CAVENDISH, Margaret. See Newcastle, Duchess of.
Suffolk, in 1560. For a short time he studied at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, but quitting the university without a degree, he followed the court, and in a few years squandered away nearly all his inheritance. Turning his attention to maritime adventure with a view to repairing his fortune, he fitted out a ship in which he accompanied the expedition sent to Virginia in 1585 under the command of Sir Richard Grenville. On his return he resolved upon a predatory expedition against the Spaniards in the New World. Accordingly, on July 21, 1586, he sailed from Plymouth with three small vessels, passed through the Straits of Magellan, cruised along the coasts of Chili, Peru, and Mexico, and burnt and sunk nineteen ships, including the " Santa Anna," a vessel belonging to the king of Spain, with a cargo of immense value, which he captured off the coast of California. Returning home with his
plunder by the Cape of Good Hope he reached Plymouth,