EGYPTIAN.] COSTUME 457 corners rounded off so as to be nearly circular when folded out ; (4) pcenula, worn in rainy weather to cover the dress, and made of thick flaxen material (gausape) or leather, with or without a hood, and formed of an elliptical piece of stuff with a round hole in the middle for the head to pass through ; (5) lacerna, a sort of Mamys of expensive material and colours, worn in the theatre or circus in presence of the emperor. As regards covering for the head, there was the hood of the paenula in rough weather (cucullus or cucullio), or the toga could be drawn up over the head, or there was a separate article the ricinium in the form of a veil, as worn by the Arval Brothers. Workmen and others wore hats or caps corresponding to the Greek pilus (pileus) and petasus. As an ornament for the head the diadem was only occasionally used till the time of Constantine. It was declined by Caesar. After Caracalla the most usual mark of an emperor was a crown of radii. The heavy garments worn out of doors, or officially, were replaced at dinner by vestes ccenaiorice of thin material. Trousers (braccce) were not worn till after the Parthian and Celtic wars, and even then only by soldiers who were exposed to northern climates. The legs were protected by flat bands (fasciae) laced round them up to the knees. On the feet senators wore shoes of red leather (mulleus, calceus senator ius), ornamented with knobs of ivory or brass, and having a high sole. The patrician order wore shoes of black leather (calceus patricius), orna mented with an ivory crescent, and hence called lunula. For unofficial occasions, and for persons not belonging to these orders, there were the sandals (solece). The compayus, said to have been introduced from Etruria by Romulus, appears to have been a high hunting boot laced up the front, while the caliga appears to have been a sort of shoe. For personal ornament finger-rings of great variety in the material and design were worn, sometimes to the extent of one or more on each finger, many persons possessing small cabinets of them. Bat at first the Roman citizen wore only an iron signet ring. A gold ring was intro duced for persons sent on foreign embassies, but by degrees the jus annuli aurei was extended to all classes of citizens. In the case of baldness, a wig (capillamentum) was allowed to men as well as women during the empire. Till 290 B.C. it was the custom of men to let the hair and beard grow long. From that time shaving and short hair were the fashion, till under Hadrian, when long beards were again grown. Female Dress. The proximity of wealthy Greek towns in the south of Italy, and the extensive intercourse between the Romans and Greece and the East even in republican times, offered tempting facilities to Roman ladies for the supply of dress, and the result is that in artistic repre sentations their dress does not differ in any important particulars from that of the Greeks as already de scribed. Still the names for the main articles of dress remain Roman, from which it may be inferred that the differences between the original Roman and the imported Greek dress were not essential as regards shape. Next the skin was worn the tunica interior (mtusiuin or interula), loose and without sleeves. Under the breasts passed the mammillare or strophium. Then came the tunica proper, generally called stola, girt at the waist, and with sleeves fastened down the arms as in the chiton. Over this was thrown for out-door wear the palla, or plaid, identical with the Greek himation. A veil over the back of the head {flammeum or ricinium) was the mark of a well-to-d:> matron. In rainy weather a hood like the Etruscan tutulus was worn. To cover or hold up the hair, nets were used {mitra calantica, calvatica), but this simple article was far from common among the Roman ladies, whose chief characteristic in works of art is the elaborateness of their manner of braiding and twining the hair. After the Germanic wars a blond colour of hair became fashionable, and to get this dyeing was resorted to. Generally the eyebrows and eyelashes were painted ; even the veins on temples were sometimes touched with delicate blue colour. The complexion was improved by various powders and washes. The teeth were carefully looked after, false ones making up the deficiency of nature. For the feet sandals, but by preference shoes, were made use of, generally of bright colours and embroidered with gold or pearls ; socks 01 stockings were confined to ceremonial appearances. Personal ornaments consisted of brooches (fibulae), bracelets (armillce), armlets (bracchialia), ear-rings (inaures), neck laces (monilia), wreaths (coronce), and hair-pins (crinalts). The tore (torques), or cord of gold worn round the neck, was introduced from Gaul. A profusion of precious stones, and absence of skill or refinement in workmanship, distin guish Roman from Greek or Etruscan jewellery ; but in the character of the designs there is 110 real difference. EGYPTIAN AND ASSYRIAN. Egyptian. The ordinary male dress of the Egyptians, previous to about 1600 B.C., consisted of a piece of linen cloth tied round the loins, with occasionally an upper garment or skin of a tiger or leopard thrown round the body. Though this continued even to much later times to be the dress of many, yet from the date just given distinc tions of grade in society began to be marked by different ways of girding the loins, by greater size of the cloth, by twining it up round the body, and by wearing two or more loin cloths of different materials (Weiss, Kostumkunde, i. fig. 18, p. 33). The peculiarly Ethiopian dress was in the form of a sleeveless skirt with fringe round the lower edge, hanging loose except among poorer people, who wore it fitting close to the body. The rule in early times was to go barefooted except on occasions of ceremonial, when a sort of hose of network or greaves were worn. But under the new empire, after 1600 B.C., covering for both feet and head came into general use, the former consisting of sandals, the latter of a cap made of leather, or of what som3 call cotton. Magistrates and others of rank wore from the earliest times sandals, and on the head a square of cloth folded diagonally with its three points gathered together at the back of the neck. The dress of a king was distinguished by a triangular projecting skirt (fig. 8) of leather and ornamented with gold. Over this he wore a chiton and a sash round the waist. On his head was a crown, pshent, which could be of three kinds, either that of Lower or of Upper Egypt, or a combination of these two, the latter having nearly the appearance of a mitre. A queen wore a long, thin, and richly ornamented chiton, with sash round waist and shoulders (fig. 9). A broad collar round neck and over breast was worn both by men and women who could afford it. The taste for ornament was general, men wearing armlets, Fw - 8 -~ Au Egyptian King, bracelets, anklets, and finger-rings, while women not only wore these articles in greater size, number, and richness, but also diadems, girdles, and bands of orna ment round the breasts and hips. The national dress, however, for poorer women was a simple close-fitting
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